Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

Walden University Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders-Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders  assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University   Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

The introduction for the Walden University   Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders 

After the introduction, move into the main part of the  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for  Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Introduction to Risperidone

Brand name: Risperdal®

Generic name: Risperidone

Drug class:  second-generation antipsychotic medication 

• The FDA has authorized risperidone for the treatment of schizophrenia in children and adults 13 and older, bipolar I disorder, and autism-related irritability in children five and older (Kloosterboer et al., 2020).
• The FDA has approved long-acting risperidone injectables for use in individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder maintenance, either as a stand-alone medication or as an adjuvant to valproate or lithium.
• Risperidone is used to treat a variety of conditions that are not FDA-approved, such as pedophilia, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Tourette syndrome, stuttering, aberrant movement patterns, and developmental issues.

Mechanism of action

Risperidone is hypothesized to work as an antidepressant by preventing serotonin and norepinephrine from being reabsorbed. According to a theory, inhibiting D2 receptors, especially those in the mesolimbic pathway, can alleviate positive sensations (May et al., 2019). The ability of antipsychotics to block dopamine 2 receptors in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens is necessary for the improvement of some psychiatric symptoms. Risperidone does not possess anticholinergic properties, which may be useful for some individuals in certain demographics, such as elderly dementia sufferers.

Pharmacodynamics

The primary mechanism of action of risperidone is to decrease D2 and 5HT pathway function in the brain, which reduces symptoms of schizophrenia and other mood disorders. The drug has a higher affinity for 5-HT2A receptors in the brain compared to D2 receptors (Kloosterboer et al., 2020). Risperidone has a lower affinity for the D2 receptor than first-generation antipsychotic drugs, which bind to them with a very high affinity. Since risperidone’s affinity for D2 receptors is lower than that of its predecessors, a reduction in extrapyramidal symptoms is most likely the result.

Pharmacokinetics

• Risperidone has good absorption. 70% of risperidone is bioavailable when taken orally. When compared to a solution, risperidone from a tablet has a 94% higher relative oral bioavailability (May et al., 2019).
• Risperidone’s volume of distribution ranges from 1 to 2 L/kg.
• In human plasma, risperidone and 9-hydroxy risperidone, their active metabolite, are respectively 88% and 77% protein-bound. Each of them binds to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein and serum albumin.
• Hepatic cytochrome P450 2D6 isozyme extensively metabolizes the drug to 9-hydroxy risperidone, which has a receptor binding affinity close to that of risperidone. Debrisoquine 4-hydroxylase is necessary for hydroxylation, and metabolic processes are susceptible to genetic variations in this enzyme. To a lesser degree, risperidone also experiences N-dealkylation.
• In the liver, risperidone is extensively processed. Risperidone and 9-hydroxy-risperidone had poorer renal clearance and prolonged elimination half-lives in healthy elderly individuals compared to younger, healthier people.
• Risperidone is eliminated from the body through the kidneys. The clearance is lowered by around 60% in older adults and those with a ClCr around 15 and 59 mL/min.

Dosage and administration 

• You can give this drug orally or as a long-acting injection.
• For individuals under the age of 65, the first dosage for the therapy of schizophrenia is indicated to be between 1 and 3 mg/day taken orally in one or two doses (Bhat et al., 2023).
• To reach a goal dosage of 2 mg per day, the dose can be raised at intervals of 0.5 mg per day every six to seven days (May et al., 2019). Although dosages of more than 4 mg per day are seldom more beneficial, the maximum daily dose is 16 mg.
• Patients under the age of 65 should receive maintenance dosages of 1 to 4 mg/day administered orally in one or two doses.

Considerations of use in special populations:

• For individuals over 65, the suggested beginning dose is 0.25 mg/day; this amount can be raised by 0.5 mg/day every six to seven days to a maximum of 2 mg/day (Yunusa & El Helou, 2020). Although dosages of more than 4 mg per day are seldom more beneficial, the maximum daily dose is 16 mg.
• Renal dosing: If CrCl is under 30, start at a dosage of 0.5 mg by mouth twice daily; you may raise it by up to 0.5 mg twice per day until you reach 1.5 mg twice daily, at which point you shouldn’t increase the dose more frequently than once every two weeks (Fu et al., 2022).
• Hepatic dosage: For Child-Pugh Class C, the first dose is 0.5 mg taken orally twice per day. Up to 0.5 milligrams twice daily, and up to 1.5 mg twice daily, may be added to this dosage. After then, the dose should only be raised every week (Bhat et al., 2023).

Half-life

• The half-life of a pharmaceutical agent refers to how long it takes for its active component to break down by half in the human body (Bhat et al., 2023). Understanding the concept of half-life aids in calculating steady-state levels and excretion rates for any medicine. According to Fu et al. (2022), risperidone has an average half-life of 3 hours in people with a vigorous metabolism and as many as twenty hours in people with weak metabolism.

Side Effects/Adverse Reaction Potentials

• Risperidone has serious side effects including drowsiness, weight changes, and metabolic abnormalities (Hopkins et al., 2022).
• Risperidone has been proven to elicit extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) such as acute dystonia, tardy dyskinesia, and Parkinsonian features.
• At the beginning of therapy or when the dose is adjusted, acute or early EPS can occur.
• The most common cause of late-onset EPS is long-term therapy. Akathisia is a restless feeling that might cause the sufferer to pace.

Contraindications

• Patients who have a history of risperidone or paliperidone (risperidone metabolite) allergies or hypersensitivity should not be prescribed risperidone (Bhat et al., 2023).
• Given that some patients receiving risperidone for their HPPD reported an aggravation of their panic and visual symptoms, hallucinogen persistent perception disorder may be a relative contraindication for risperidone (Fernandez et al., 2019).

Overdose Considerations

• Overdose can cause lethargy, dystonia, a rapid heartbeat, cardiac arrest, and convulsions (Hopkins et al., 2022).
• Overdoes of risperidone can be handled with strict, continuous surveillance and therapy with biperiden or diphenhydramine.

Diagnostics and labs monitoring

• Although therapeutic drug monitoring for risperidone is not necessary, American guidelines strongly advocate monitoring plasma levels for this drug due to evidence of considerable fluctuation (Yunusa & El Helou, 2020).
• In addition to judging compliance and finding low medication concentrations that may result in therapeutic failure, therapeutic monitoring can help determine potential drug interactions and side effects.
• Certain aspects should be kept an eye on when a patient is taking an antipsychotic, especially in kids who are more prone to adverse effects.
• When using risperidone, the doctor may help the patient by keeping track of the patient’s blood pressure, fasting blood sugar, insulin, QTc, BMI, and thyroid function (Fernandez et al., 2019).

Comorbidities consideration

• Patients who have a history of hypersensitivity to either risperidone or paliperidone, as well as to any of the excipients included in the formulation of risperidone, should not take risperidone (Vargas et al., 2019). Serious hypersensitivity responses including anaphylaxis are possible side effects.
• Taking risperidone may cause cognitive and motor impairment. During the first few days of medication, risperidone’s sedative effects could be the most noticeable. Patients should be urged to use caution until they are aware of how this medication affects them when performing tasks requiring coordination and attention, such as driving or operating machinery (Bhat et al., 2023).

Legal and ethical considerations

• While treating schizophrenic patients, psychiatrists may run across ethical dilemmas. The finest care for these people and the highest respect for their self-determination regularly come into conflict (Yunusa & El Helou, 2020).
• Under the existing agreement, the importance of respecting an individual’s autonomy should normally take precedence, even when a patient may have worse medical results.

Pertinent patient education considerations

• Risperidone should be taken every day at around the same time(s). This medication may make you drowsy, and make it difficult for you to think or regulate your movements, which might result in falls, fractures, or other injuries (Vargas et al., 2019). Avoid driving or doing anything else potentially risky until you know how this drug affects you.

References

Bhat, A. A., Gupta, G., Afzal, O., Kazmi, I., Al-Abbasi, F. A., Alfawaz Altamimi, A. S., Almalki, W. H., Alzarea, S. I., Singh, S. K., & Dua, K. (2023). Neuropharmacological effect of risperidone: From chemistry to medicine. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 369, 110296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110296

Fernandez, G., Kuruvilla, S., Hines, C. D. G., Poignant, F., Marr, J., Forest, T., & Briscoe, R. (2019). Brain findings associated with risperidone in rhesus monkeys: magnetic resonance imaging and pathology perspectives. Journal of Toxicologic Pathology, 32(4), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1293/tox.2019-0004

Fu, Y., Yang, K., Huang, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, S., & Li, W.-D. (2022). Deciphering Risperidone-Induced Lipogenesis by Network Pharmacology and Molecular Validation. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.870742

Hopkins, S. C., Ogirala, A., Zeni, C., Worden, M., & Koblan, K. S. (2022). Depicting Risperidone Safety Profiles in Clinical Trials Across Different Diagnoses Using a Dopamine D2-Based Pharmacological Class Effect Query Defined by FAERS. Clinical Drug Investigation, 42(12), 1113–1121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40261-022-01218-7

Kloosterboer, S. M., Winter, B. C. M., Reichart, C. G., Kouijzer, M. E. J., Kroon, M. M. J., Daalen, E., Ester, W. A., Rieken, R., Dieleman, G. C., Altena, D., Bartelds, B., Schaik, R. H. N., Nasserinejad, K., Hillegers, M. H. J., Gelder, T., Dierckx, B., & Koch, B. C. P. (2020). Risperidone plasma concentrations are associated with side effects and effectiveness in children and adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 87(3), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.14465

May, M., Beauchemin, M., Vary, C., Barlow, D., & Houseknecht, K. L. (2019). The antipsychotic medication, risperidone, cause global immunosuppression in healthy mice. PloS One, 14(6), e0218937. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218937

Vargas, C. G., Miranda, H. F., Sierralta, F., Noriega, V., & Prieto, J. C. (2019). Pharmacological interaction between NSAIDs with clomipramine and risperidone in mice visceral pain. Drug Development Research, 80(4), 471–474. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddr.21519

Yunusa, I., & El Helou, M. L. (2020). The Use of Risperidone in Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia: A Review of Pharmacology, Clinical Evidence, Regulatory Approvals, and Off-Label Use. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00596

Assignment: Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

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