PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
Walden University PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU-Step-By-Step Guide
This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.
How to Research and Prepare for PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.
After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.
How to Write the Introduction for PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
The introduction for the Walden University PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.
How to Write the Body for PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
After the introduction, move into the main part of the PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.
Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.
How to Write the Conclusion for PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.
How to Format the References List for PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.
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PSY-5302 v4: Stress and Coping Northcentral University
PSY-5302 Assignment: Evaluate the Relationship Between Stress and Disease NCU
The Relationship between Stress and Heart Disease
Dar, T., Radfar, A., Abohashem, S., Pitman, R. K., Tawakol, A., & Osborne, M. T. (2019). Psychosocial Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc, 21(5), 23. https://doi.10.1007/s11936-019-0724-5.
The study reviews epidemiological data linking stress to cardiovascular disease. The study aimed to identify the biological pathway that links stress and cardiovascular disease. In the review, the authors show the link between metabolic activities of the amygdala. Earlier studies revealed that the activities are measurable using the 8 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to produce a neurobiological signal that independently has a relationship with cardiovascular events. The metabolic pathways link psychological stress to heart diseases. According to the authors, various forms of psychosocial stress result from different etiologies and situations. However, regardless of the stress source, all psychosocial stress activates the SNS and HPA axis response, elevating blood pressure. Nevertheless, psychosocial stress can be acute or chronic, and the stress response is unique to every individual. Hence, the incidence, type, and consequence of cardiovascular events associated with psychosocial stress depend on the duration and degree.
To comprehensively understand the relationship between stress and cardiovascular events, the author provides examples of different stressors that cause acute or chronic stress. The acute stress sources are acute emotional stress or natural disasters. on the other hand, the chronic stressors include stress related to the job, marital issues, death of a loved one, caregiving, poor socioeconomic status, and psychiatric conditions. Both acute and chronic stress cause similar cardiovascular events. One of the common cardiovascular events associated with psychosocial stress is hypertension. Studies mostly link hypertension to chronic psychosocial stress, and it manifests by prolonged elevation of blood pressure. The second common CVD event is arterial fibrillation linked to chronic stress-related too difficult working conditions such as prolonged hours. Another heart-related event is sudden cardiac death, which mainly occurs with acute stressors such as natural disasters.
Levine, G. (2022). Psychological Stress and Heart Disease: Fact or Folklore? The American Journal of Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2022.01.053.
Levine (2022) sought to determine whether the association of stress with heart disease has evidential backing or is mere folklore.
According to the author, for years, angina, cardiac death, and heart attack have been associated with psychosocial stress, as evident from patient reports and press releases. Thus, the author reviews the mechanisms that associate psychosocial stress with heart disease and how the conditions precipitate infarction and myocardial ischemia. First, the study defines psychosocial stress as “when an individual perceives that environmental demands tax or exceed his or her psychological resources or adaptive capacity, endangering his or her well-being” (Levine, 2022, p. 1). The author reviews studies that have established the link between psychosocial stress and heart disease. For example, the worldwide INTERHEART study involving 25,000 respondents showed a statistically significant relationship between work-related stress and heart diseases.
According to the author’s findings, coronary vasoconstriction is one of the mechanisms associated with acute stress and cardiovascular events. Under this mechanism, a study exposing patients to mental stress showed a 24% ± 4% constriction in stenosed arterial segments. In turn, the vasoconstriction initiates various events, including a reduction in myocardial oxygen supply, increased blood pressure and heart rates, and elevated myocardial oxygen demand causing angina. Another pathway is the prothrombotic and pre-inflammatory effects marked by increased thrombotic factors that impact heart rate and normal blood flow, causing ischemic and infarction activities. These mechanisms provide plausible evidence linking acute psychosocial stress with myocardial dysfunction, cardiac death, and arrhythmia. Similarly, with chronic psychosocial stress, the mechanisms associated with heart diseases are the development or precipitation of atherosclerosis. According to evidence, chronic psychosocial stress instigates events such as smoking, unhealthy lifestyle, consumption of alcohol and other habits that slowly contribute to the build-up of plaque on the walls of arteries, causing impaired blood flow, high blood pressure, and consequently heart disease.
Osborne, M. T., Shin, L., Mehta, N., Pitman, R., Fayad, Z., & Tawakol, A. (2020). Disentangling the Links Between Psychosocial Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Cardiovascular Imaging, 13(8), e010931. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.120.010931
The study acknowledges that stress has pathological consequences contributing to CVD. First, the authors stress that psychosocial stress is a fundamental part of life, and everyone has a unique way of responding to a stressor, which determines the consequences. The authors also discuss the INTERHEART study and its significance in expanding knowledge on the association of psychosocial stress with CVD. The study is critical to the debate on stress and heart disease because it eliminated the cofounding factors associated with CVD, such as socioeconomic conditions. Hence, the study revealed that stress independently contributes to heart disease. According to the authors, the mechanism providing the link between stress and CVD is the salience network of the brain. This involves the action of the amygdala, which activates the hypothalamus to elevate the sympathetic nervous system and reduce the parasympathetic nervous system while initiating neurohormonal output. These events occur through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Additionally, threatening environmental experiences ignite the fight or flight response, causing stress-related neuroactivities. Ultimately, the neural changes that occur due to response to stress cause disease-promoting physiological changes that lead to cardiovascular activities.
The evidence provided by the authors also shows that chronic stress results in immune system dysregulation. The dysfunction affects gene transcription related to immune responses and others governed by NF-κβ. The mechanism impacts cause reduced immunosurveillance and inflammation, creating a stream of maladies that affect the normal physiological functioning of the body, including the cardiovascular system. The study also explored the measurement of physiological response to stress, which can be achieved through heart rate variability and skin conductance response. Other revolutionary methods of measuring stress include neuroimaging and positron emission tomography. These measures show the direct neurobiological impact of stress on a person. They provide insight into how stress initiates biological mechanisms that contribute to the development or progression of heart diseases, among other CVD conditions.
Satyjeet, F., Naz, S., & Kumar, V. (2020). Psychological Stress as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease: A Case-Control Study. Cureus , 12(10), e10757. https://doi.10.7759/cureus.10757.
Satyjeet et al. (2020) conducted a case-controlled study investigating stress as a trigger for cardiovascular diseases. The study is based on the theory that stress is a risk factor for heart disease and other cardiovascular-related issues. The authors show that prolonged stress has after-effects that cause psychological trauma. Psychological trauma initiates events that cause cardiovascular disease, making stress a primary CVD risk factor. The research acknowledges efforts to show a connection between stress and CVD but notes that sufficient evidence is lacking, especially locally. Hence, the study used 110 participants from a local population in Pakistan. The local population makes a good choice for the research because the people are exposed to various stressors and other factors such as low socioeconomic conditions that cause or exacerbate CVD events.
The study results indicated that cardiovascular events were higher in individuals with work-related stress, history of child abuse, marital issues, and social isolation. Since the participants belonged to the same socioeconomic group, economic conditions as a factor that contributes to the cardiovascular issue were ruled out. Thus, like other studies, stress independently contributed to the cardiovascular events observed among the study participants. The authors further link the associations by explaining the mechanism behind the link between stress and CVD. The most common explanation is the complex interaction between cognition and emotional responses in the brain. In particular, the amygdala plays a primary role in hormonal, autonomic, and behavioral responses associated with stress and its subsequent impact on cardiovascular conditions.
Song, H., Fang, F., Arnberg, F., Mataix-Cols, D., de la Cruz, L., Almqvist, C., & Fall, K. (2019). Stress related disorders and risk of cardiovascular disease: population-based, sibling controlled cohort study. BMJ, 365, 1255.
The study is a cohort-based study investigating stress as a cardiovascular disease risk factor. The study uses a population of patients with stress-related disorders such as acute stress reaction, post-traumatic stress disorder, and adjustment reaction. The study examined those with stress-related disorders and their siblings unaffected by stress disorders. The study found that the incidence of cardiovascular disease was 10.5 for exposed individuals, 8.4 for the unaffected siblings, and 6.9 for the unexposed but matched individuals. The measurements were per 1000 person-years. These results confirm the connection between stress-based disorders and cardiovascular conditions. According to the findings, the most common sub-type of CVD observed in the patients was heart failure, which mainly occurred in the first year following a diagnosis with any stress-related disease. Moreover, stress-related conditions showed an association with early onset of CVD compared to those unaffected by stress-related conditions.
Moreover, the findings support the rationale that stress can independently cause CVD when other factors are held constant. Hence, the commonly cited familial background as the leading cause of hypertension leading to CVD conditions only has a weaker association with heart disease than stress. According to the study, in the first year of follow-up, the incidence of CVD among patients with stress-related disorders was twice that of their siblings. The evidence presented by the study is strong because it involved an initial follow-up of 6 years and a long-term follow-up of 27 years. Also, using 100,000 samples was an important strength that allowed the researchers to conduct a subgroup analysis, enhancing the credibility of the concepts revealed by the study. Thus, the study corroborates other findings showing the role of stress in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions.
Summary
The research presented in this review corroborates the connection between stress and heart disease. The sources speak a common language that chronic and acute psychosocial stress contributes to cardiovascular events. However, more evidence leans towards chronic psychosocial stress. For example, Satyjeet et al. (2020) research shows that people with a history of work-related stress, marital problems, childhood abuse, and social isolation are prone to cardiovascular events. Such factors cause psychological trauma, which for a prolonged period develops into cardiovascular issues through a complex process of emotional and cognitive responses. Equally, stress-related conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder are overwhelmingly discussed in the studies as primary causes of cardiovascular conditions. Moreover, the review shows that an individual’s reaction to a stressful situation is unique from one person to another, and thus, the mode and frequency of response determine the nature of cardiovascular events manifesting in a particular individual. Nevertheless, cardiac death, heart disease, and hypertension are the most common.
The relationship between stress and heart diseases has many mechanisms, as explored in these studies. However, the commonly cited pathway is the amygdala. Stress cause neurotransmission that heightens activities of the amygdala and other physiological functioning that cause inflammation in the arteries, creating a high risk of a heart attack and other cardiovascular events. Similarly, stress can also create a high oxygen demand, initiating activities that lead to cardiovascular disease. Finally, stress also increases the chances of smoking, drinking, and unhealthy eating, which eventually cause the build-up of plaques in the arteries, causing high blood pressure. Thus, the mechanisms supporting the association between stress and cardiovascular events are quite numerous. However, studies remain limited on this topic, making it challenging to synthesize all the evidence. The information on the mechanisms involved is essential in creating an effective intervention for CVD events that target psychosocial factors.
References
Dar, T., Radfar, A., Abohashem, S., Pitman, R. K., Tawakol, A., & Osborne, M. T. (2019). Psychosocial Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc, 21(5), 23. https://doi.10.1007/s11936-019-0724-5.
Levine, G. (2022). Psychological Stress and Heart Disease: Fact or Folklore? The American Journal of Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2022.01.053.
Osborne, M. T., Shin, L., Mehta, N., Pitman, R., Fayad, Z., & Tawakol, A. (2020). Disentangling the Links Between Psychosocial Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Cardiovascular Imaging, 13(8), e010931. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.120.010931.
Satyjeet, F., Naz, S., & Kumar, V. (2020). Psychological Stress as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease: A Case-Control Study. Cureus , 12(10), e10757. https://doi.10.7759/cureus.10757.
Song, H., Fang, F., Arnberg, F., Mataix-Cols, D., de la Cruz, L., Almqvist, C., & Fall, K. (2019). Stress related disorders and risk of cardiovascular disease: population based, sibling controlled cohort study. BMJ, 365, 1255.