NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
Chamberlain University NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability– Step-By-Step Guide
This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Chamberlain University NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.
How to Research and Prepare for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Chamberlain University NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.
After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.
How to Write the Introduction for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
The introduction for the Chamberlain University NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.
How to Write the Body for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
After the introduction, move into the main part of the NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.
Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.
How to Write the Conclusion for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.
How to Format the References List for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.
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Sample Answer for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
A Papanicolaou test or better known as Pap smear testing is a method of cervical cancer screening. It is used to detect cervical epithelial changes that can be pre-cancerous and cancerous (Sachan, Singh, Patel, & Sachan, 2018). There are two forms of cervical screening testing, conventional and liquid-based cytology. There is no clinical or significant difference in the results. As with any testing and results, there can be a potential false-positive or a false-negative. In essence, one is not better than the other. Both methods share the same high accuracy rate. If further testing is needed a colposcopy is performed as the diagnostic test.
Cervical cancer screening consist of cytology (Pap smear) for women with a cervix at ages 21-29 every 3 years and for women 30 to 65 cytology every 3 years or cytology with human papilloma virus (HPV) every 5 years. There has been a large reduction rate of cervical cancers in the United States. Early screening and detection reduces cervical rates 60% to 90% within 3 years of interventions (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force [USPSTF], 2012). Unfortunately, for developing countries cervical cancer is higher due to the lack of knowledge, technology, and experience.
“The overall sensitivity of the Pap test in detecting a high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) is 70.2%. A Pap screening done in association with a HPV DNA test increases the sensitivity for early detection of precancerous lesions” (Sachan, Singh, Patel, & Sachan, 2018). There can be 6 different pap results, I will list the severity in ascending order: negative, atypical squamous cells (ASC-US), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL), atypical squamous cells-cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H), and atypical glandular cells (ACG) (The American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists [ACOG], 2016). Depending on the results and the patient’s age will depend on if a colposcopy, biopsy, or an endocervical sampling is needed.
Situations that can alter the screening for this patient is having a total hysterectomy (medical history). It is not recommended a pap smear be performed on someone without a cervix due to a lack of cervical precancerous lesions. Another alteration could be if their immediate family member has been diagnosed with cancer early in life (family history). If a patient is HIV positive they may require more frequent screening. Also, the patient’s age. Studies have found screening prior to age 21 and after age 65 with previous normal Pap smear results is not beneficial. The risk outweighs the benefits and can potentially cause physical and/or psychological damage.
Reference
The American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists. (2016). Abnormal cervical cancer screening test results. Retrieved from https://www.acog.org
Sachan, P.L., Singh, M., Patel, M.L., & Sachan, R. (2018). A study on cervical cancer screening using pap smear test and clinical correlation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Oncology Nursing, 5(3), 337-341.
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. (2012). Cervical Cancer: Screening. Retrieved from https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org.
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Sample Answer 2 for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
I enjoy reading your post, it was quite informative. Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, and was responsible for 8.8 million deaths in 2015. Globally, nearly 1 in 6 deaths is due to cancer (WHO, 2018). Approximately 15% of cancers diagnosed in 2012 were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, Human papillomavirus (HPV), Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus (Plummer, Martel, Vignat, Ferlay, Bray, & Franceschi, 2016). More specifically, cervical cancer was a known cause of death for American women. However, this rate of death was decreased due to the use of the Pap test (WHO, 2018). It has been my experience that many young women visit the ED with vaginal complaints and have never obtained a Pap smear, let alone visit the gynecologist for these complaints. The challenge as a nurse is educating these young women on the importance of this screening. The views or beliefs held by the young ladies are that they are not in need of this test, embarrassed, or just lack of knowledge. To enable a positive moment where the information presented is grasped by the female patient, the nurse should strive to provide education that stresses the importance of the Pap smear and strategies allowing greater understanding of one’s own body (Plummer et.al, 2016). Additionally, continue to build trust and allow for opportunities to plant the seeds of knowledge.
Screening aims to identify individuals with abnormalities suggestive of a specific cancer or pre-cancer who have not developed any symptoms and refer them promptly for diagnosis and treatment. Screening programms can be effective for select cancer types when appropriate tests are used, implemented effectively, linked to other steps in the screening process and when quality is assured. In general, a screening program is a far more complex public health intervention compared to early diagnosis.
Examples of screening methods are:
visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) for cervical cancer in low-income settings;
HPV testing for cervical cancer;
PAP cytology test for cervical cancer in middle- and high-income settings; and
mammography screening for breast cancer in settings with strong or relatively strong health systems.
Plummer, M., Martel, C., Vignat, J., Ferlay, J., Bray, F., & Franceschi, S. (2016). Global burden of cancers attributable to infections in 2012: a synthetic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 4(9):e609-16. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30143-7.
World Health Organization (2018). Cancer. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/detail/cancer on 07/18/2018
Sample Answer 3 for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
I would like to add the validity, reliability, and its predictive value found in a peer-reviewed journal. The article analyzed the effectiveness of a Pap smear. In a retrospective study with 266 cases were performed.
The overall sensitivity of Pap smear in cervical cytology in their study found to be as followed: sensitivity 74%, specificity 91%, positive predictive value 86%, negative predictive value 82.5%, false positive percentage 13%, false negative percentage 17.4% (Kudva, 2015). The article did mention possible errors that may have contributed to the under and over diagnosing of cervical cancer, such as sampling technique errors.
Thank you
Kudva, R. (2015). Accuracy of pap smear predictions: Cytohistologic correlation. American Society for Clinical Pathology, 144
Sample Answer 4 for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
Typically, measles is self-limiting; however, a number of severe outcomes have been described. The risk of measles morbidity and mortality is multifactorial, depending on both vaccination and nutrition status; malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency are risk factors for severe outcomes (Mayo-Wilson, Imdad, Herzer, Yawar-Yakoob, & Bhutta, 2011).
There is no specific antiviral treatment against the measles virus. Serious complications can be avoided with a supportive treatment that guarantees good nutrition, sufficient fluid intake and treatment of dehydration with oral rehydration solutions recommended by WHO (to replace fluids and other essential elements that are lost with diarrhea and/or vomiting). Antibiotics should be prescribed to treat pneumonia and ear and eye infections (Mayo-Wilson et al, 2011). All children in developing countries diagnosed with measles should receive two doses of vitamin A supplements. This treatment is effective in restoring vitamin A levels, which during illness are usually low even in well-nourished children, and can help prevent eye injuries and blindness. In addition, it has been shown that vitamin A supplements reduce mortality from measles by 50% (Mayo-Wilson et al, 2011).
As previously mentioned there is no specific treatment against the measles virus, so, I definitely agree with you that vaccination against measles is very important. The systematic vaccination of children and adults against measles is a fundamental public health strategy to reduce global mortality from measles. We currently have the MMR vaccine that offers protection against measles, rubella and mumps viruses, and is safe and effective. It is applied in two doses and thanks to its use, great progress has been made towards the goal of eliminating/decreasing the disease. To guarantee immunity and prevent possible outbreaks, two doses of the vaccine are recommended.
Mayo-Wilson, E., Imdad, A., Herzer,K., Yawar-Yakoob,M., & Bhutta,Z.A.( 2011).Vitamin A supplements for preventing mortality, illness, and blindness in children aged under 5: systematic review and meta-analysis.BMJ. 343: d5094. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d5094
Sample Answer 5 for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
Many of the primary healthcare providers are focused on diagnosing disease rather than health promotion behaviors. For example, they are more focused on numbers of HbA1c and FPG for glycaemic control than managing diet, medication, exercise, regular check-up, risk avoidance, psychosocial and emotional distress, foot care and oral hygiene with pre-and diabetes patients (Saffari, Krimi, Koenig & Al-Zaben, 2015). In addition, the assessment scale that puts them together as a screening measure is limited. So, the primary care providers in Iranian have utilized type 2 diabetes health promotion scale (T2DHPS) with diabetes patients. The T2DHPS used the questionnaire relating to adults’ diabetes care and health-promoting behaviors with ten categories: Physical activity, healthy diet, health responsibility, social support, and stress management, enjoy life, medication, risk-reducing behaviors, oral hygiene, and foot care (Saffari, Krimi, Koenig & Al-Zaben, 2015). It used the rating score ranging from 1 to 5 to calculate the frequency of reported behaviors. The study indicated there was a significant relationship between glycaemic control and T2DHPS. Blood sugar was controlled when the underlying factors of the T2DHPS were well managed. It also concluded that T2DHPS is a reliable and valid tool for the screening and investigating of health-promoting behaviors in Iranian with type 2 diabetes patients (Saffari, Krimi, Koenig & Al-Zaben, 2015). However, there was one limitation that the scale is only available in English and Chinese which suggests that further studies need to be established in other languages.
Saffari, M., Karimi, T., Koenig, H. G., & Al-Zaben, F. (2015). Psychometric evaluation of the Persian version of the Type 2 Diabetes and Health Promotion Scale (T2DHPS): a diabetes-specific measure of lifestyle. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 29(3), 603-612. doi:10.1111/scs.12181
Sample Answer 6 for NR 503 Week 2: Screening and Reliability
The screening test I chose is the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test that screens for prostate cancer.
In 2017, 161,360 prostate cancer cases were diagnosed in men living in the United States; within the same year, 26,730 men died from prostate cancer or complications resulting from prostate cancer (Eastham, 2017). Researchers, doctors, and cancer specialists are pleased about the reduction in the number of deaths from prostate cancer and aim to lessen the morbidity and mortality rates even more. The decrease has been attributed to the use of the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test (Eastham, 2017). This early detection test is beneficial because it measures the level of PSA in a man’s blood; PSA is a protein produced by prostate gland cells (National Cancer Institute, 2017). If the prostate-specific antigen test indicates the blood level of a man’s PSA is elevated, he may be diagnosed with prostate cancer. The FDA suggests the use of the PSA test along with a digital rectal exam (DRE) to test asymptomatic men for prostate cancer. The PSA test not only detects the possibility of prostate cancer, it also indicates non-cancerous conditions that cause a man’s PSA level to rise, such as inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) and enlargement of the prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia -BPH) (National Cancer Institute, 2017). Men at risk to develop prostate cancer are adult men over 50 years of age who have had no previous diagnosis of prostate cancer or other prostate related conditions (National Cancer Institute, 2017). Adult men at a greater risk for developing prostate cancer include African-American men and men who report a family history of prostate cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2017). Many health and cancer organization recommend that adult men in the increased risk category begin screening earlier than age 50, typically around ages 40 to 45 (National Cancer Institute, 2017).
The United States Preventive Services Task Force (2018) has reviewed the information and statistics regarding adult men and the occurrence of prostate cancer, the use of the PSA test and digital rectal exam (DRE) to test men for prostate cancer, and which population of men have been indicated as the at-risk population. The Task Force (2018) has determined there are advantages to screening men between the ages of 55 and 69 and concludes there is little benefit to screening men before age 55 unless they are in the high-risk category. The primary benefit of administering the PSA test and digital rectal exam (DRE) is catching prostate cancer early, which reduces the risk of metastatic cancer and the amount of men dying from prostate cancer.
The United States Preventive Services Task Force (2018) agrees with the National Cancer Institute and strongly recommends that doctors inform their African American patients and patients with a family history of prostate cancer about the potential benefits of screening and their increased risk of developing and dying from prostate cancer. The Task Force (2018) does not recommend screening for men older than 70, including men in the high-risk category because the benefits do not outweigh the harms.
Reference
Eastham, J. (2017). Prostate cancer screening. Investigative and Clinical Urology, 58(4), 217–219. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.4111/icu.2017.58.4.217
National Cancer Institute. (2017, October 4). Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/psa-fact-sheet#q1
United States Preventive Services Task Force. (2018). Prostate cancer screening final recommendation back to top. Retrieved from https://screeningforprostatecancer.org/