NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
Grand Canyon University NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases–Step -By-Step Guide
This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Grand Canyon University NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.
How to Research and Prepare for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Grand Canyon University NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.
After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.
How to Write the Introduction for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
The introduction for the Grand Canyon University NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.
How to Write the Body for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
After the introduction, move into the main part of the NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.
Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.
How to Write the Conclusion for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.
How to Format the References List for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.
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Sample Answer for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
Communicable diseases, including tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and influenza, have a considerable effect on the global population. Factors such as globalization significantly impact the spread and severity of communicable diseases. For example, the constant changes in the status of human interactions affect the spread of infectious diseases globally. Nurses and other healthcare providers have the essential role of minimizing the spread and impact of communicable diseases in their populations. They utilize primary, secondary, and tertiary health promotion methods to empower the affected and those at risk to transform their lifestyles and behaviors. They also select best practice interventions that optimize care outcomes, including safety, quality, and efficiency. Therefore, this research paper explores the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS.
Description of the Communicable Disease
HIV/AIDS is the chosen communicable disease. HIV/AIDS is a viral infection attributed to the human immunodeficiency virus. It attacks the immune system of the body. Lack of treatment leads to viral progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). People affected by HIV/AIDS experience various symptoms during its symptomatic phase. They include fever, chills, night sweats, rash, muscle aches, swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, sore throat, oral ulcers, and diarrhea that last for a week (Dumais, 2017). Patients also report rapid weight loss, pneumonia, skin blotches, and neurological disorders, including depression and memory loss.
The main transmission mode of HIV/AIDS is through contact with infected fluids, including semen, breast milk, blood, or vaginal secretions. Direct transmission also occurs during the utero life, where the mother transmits the virus to the fetus during pregnancy and delivery. Behaviors such as having multiple sexual partners, injectable drugs, unprotected sex, and a history of sexually transmitted diseases predispose to HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS is associated with several complications. They include tuberculosis, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcal meningitis, candidiasis, and pneumocystis pneumonia. Patients are also increasingly predisposed to non-AIDS-related cancers, liver disease, frailty, renal disease, and diabetes (Capriotti, 2018; Dumais, 2017). HIV/AIDS does not have a cure. However, patients are treated with antiretroviral medications that suppress the viral load in the body. Symptomatic treatments for conditions such as oral candidiasis, meningitis, and pneumonia are also used to prevent further immune suppression.
The existing statistics show HIV/AIDS as a national and global health concern. Statistics show that 34800 new HIV/AIDS cases were reportedin 2019. It represented a decline of 8% in the incidence rate. The rate of infections was highest among people aged 45-54 years, followed by those aged 35-44 years. Overall, about 1.2 million people in the USA have HIV/AIDS, with 13% not knowing their status. The minority groups, including bisexual, gay, and other men that have sex with men, lead in the populations affected by HIV/AIDS in the USA (HIV.GOV, 2021). HIV/AIDS is a reportable disease. Healthcare institutions report diagnosed cases of HIV/AIDS to the CDC’s National HIV Surveillance System and the respective departments of health in different states. The cases are reportedafter they are diagnosed.
Social Determinants of Health
Social determinants of health refer to modifiable factors that contribute to health inequalities. Factors evident in places where people are born, live, work, and thrive act as social determinants of their health. HIV/AIDS is associated with several determinants of health. One of them is ethnicity (Hogan et al., 2021). HIV/AIDS is high in ethnic minorities, including African Americans. Socioeconomic status or poverty is also another social determinant of health. Accordingly, the rate of HIV/AIDS is high among individuals from socio-economically deprived families. Factors such as engagement in risky sexual activities predispose them to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS.
Employment status is also another social determinant of health in HIV/AIDS. Employment status influences an individual’s socioeconomic status, access, and care affordability. The rate of HIV/AIDS tends to be higher among unemployed individuals than employed due to their increased predisposition to risky behaviors, including drug abuse and prostitution. The level of education is also a critical social determinant of health in HIV/AIDS. High rates of HIV/AIDS have been reported in populations with a low level of education (Friedman et al., 2018). Level of education influences constructs such as level of awareness, employment, and socioeconomic status of the population. Access to care also acts as a source of inequality in individuals affected by HIV/AIDS. Populations with limited access to healthcare due to lack of medical insurance coverage and unaffordability of care are likely to report high cases of HIV/AIDS. Factors such as delays in early diagnosis and initiation of treatment contribute to poor outcomes in HIV/AIDS management. Low access to healthcare services also affects the knowledge of the population about the prevention of the spread of HIV/AIDS (Santos et al., 2018). Therefore, it is important that interventions that address the social determinants of health in HIV/AIDS be implemented to promote the population’s health.
Epidemiological Triangle
An epidemiological triangle is a tool used to develop a deeper understanding of the mechanism of an infectious disease in the population. It provides insights into the relationships between agent, host, and environment in infectious disease. The agent refers to the microorganism causing the disease. Concerning HIV/AIDS, the agent causing the infection is a virus. The commonest type of virus causing HIV/AIDS is HIV-1 (Gopalappa et al., 2017). HIV-2 is less common with low virulence and similar symptoms to HIV-1. Factors related to HIV influence its ability to cause infection to the host. They include virulence or pathogenicity and dose. Virulence is the ability of a disease-causing microorganism to cause disease. HIV has a high level of virulence, as it can invade and multiply itself in the host. The dose refers to the amount or concentration of a disease-causing microorganism (Gopalappa et al., 2017). Often, HIV exists in high doses with an enhanced ability to invade and multiply in the host. HIV spreads through hosts’ direct contact with infected fluids, including semen, vaginal secretions, and blood.
Host in the epidemiological triangle refers to the carrier of the disease. It refers to the individuals affected by HIV/AIDS. Several host factors influence their ability to be affected by HIV and the development of AIDs. One of them is immune status. The risk for HIV infection is high in individuals with lowered immunity. The rate of viral invasion, multiplication, and further suppression is high. The other host-related factor is individual behaviors. Behaviors such as engaging in unprotected sex, having multiple sexual partners, and using injected drugs with sharing needles increase the risk of host exposure to the agent (Mahdavi et al., 2021). Pregnancy is also another host-related factor for HIV/AIDS. Pregnant mothers infected with HIV/AIDS have an increased risk of infecting their unborn babies through mother-to-child transmission or during delivery and breastfeeding. Individuals suffering from existing medical conditions are also increasingly predisposed to HIV/AIDS. Co-existing comorbidities low immune status of the patients, hence, their vulnerability to the agent. Patients on existing treatments for malignancies also have a high risk of HIV infection due to their suppressed immunity (Joas et al., 2018). Patients receiving blood transfusions or involved in road accidents are also at risk due to contact with contaminated fluids.
Environment refers to the external factors that affect the epidemiologic outbreak. Environmental factors affect the spread of the disease,not attributed to the host and agent. The environmental factors in HIV/AIDS include communities with a high rate of sexually transmitted diseases and a low level of reporting (Dumais, 2017). Such conditions contribute to the flourishing of HIV/AIDS. Socioeconomic factors such as poverty also contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS by limiting access to the needed treatment. Social discrimination or isolation of individuals affected by HIV/AIDS also discourages the populations from utilizing screening and treatment services (Dumais, 2017). Consequently, they contribute to the increased spread of the disease in the population.
Role of the Community Health Nurse
Community health nurses have several roles in the epidemiological management and prevention of HIV/AIDS. One of the roles is case finding. Case finding entails the identification of cases affected by HIV/AIDS and the populations at risk. The community health nurse screens the population to identify the cases. She also determines the vulnerable populations, including sex workers, transgender persons, substance and drug abusers, and individuals with multiple sex partners and engaging in unprotected sex (Mottiar& Lodge, 2018). The nurse educates the vulnerable population about the preventive measures against HIV/AIDs and the importance of screening and early treatment for the identified cases.
The community health nurse also reports identified cases to the respective authorities. Reporting is important to determine HIV/ the prevalence, incidence, and severity of HIV/AIDS in specific populations. The data aids in distributing resources for HIV/AIDS to the population. The nurse also collects data related to HIV/AIDS in the population (Knettel et al., 2021). The data provide insights into the severity, spread, and patterns of the disease in the population. The nurse analyzes the collected data to provide an accurate picture of the population’s disease pattern, spread, and burden. The nurse also disseminates the analyzed data to the population, healthcare providers, and public health officials to stimulate action. Dissemination approaches, including community presentations, journal publications, conference presentations, and new policies based on the outcomes, are effective. The community health nurse also undertakes follow-up of cases. Follow-up aims to ensure adherence to treatment by the infected and determine other needs that may affect the treatment outcomes (Knettel et al., 2021). Therefore, community health nurses play crucial roles in the epidemiological management of HIV/AIDS.
National Agency
UNAIDS is a national agency that addresses HIV/AIDS in the USA and other global states. UNAIDS is a global effort initiated to drive efforts to end HIV/AIDS by 2030 as part of the global Sustainable Development Goals. The agency prides itself in inspiring regional, global, national, and local leadership in addressing HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS,2021). The agency acts as a global problem solver by incorporating the populations affected by HIV/AIDS in decision-making. It also delivers and monitors the response initiatives against HIV/AIDS. The agency collaborates with countries and communities to develop appropriate interventions to ending HIV/AIDS and advocate the adoption of measures to address policy and legal barriers to HIV/AIDS response. UNAIDS benefit patients affected by HIV/AIDS in several ways. First, it advocates for access to treatment and preventive services by the affected populations and those at risk (UNAIDS,2021). An example is seen from expanding the access to antiretroviral drugs for HIV/AIDs patients. UNAIDS also advocates the rights of HIV patients. It ensures the prioritization of their needs in policy planning and implementation. It also supports programs to enhance the quality of life of HIV patients, including education, gender-based, and social protection of their rights.
Global Implication
HIV/AIDS has adverse global implications. Statistics show that HIV/AIDS affects about 38 million people globally. It acts as a source of disease burden since most of the affected globally do not access preventive and treatment services. HIV/AIDS affects the quality of life of the affected patients and their significant others. Patients require frequent hospitalizations for opportunistic infections, which can take a toll on them and their significant others (Navon, 2018). The need for frequent hospital visits and hospitalizations also result in declining productivity among the patients and their families.
HIV/AIDS also has huge financial implications for the global states. For example, the USA spent more than $34.8 billion in 2019 treating and combating HIV/AIDS (KFF, 2021). According to Dieleman et al. (2018), there was an increase in the annualized rate of healthcare spending per capita due to HIV/AIDS from 1995 to 2015. The largest growth was reported in upper-middle-income countries and low-middle-income countries. The increase led to $9.1 trillion spent on healthcare globally in treating and combating HIV/AIDS.
HIV/AIDS also contributes to a high percentage of mortalities globally. For example, the UNAIDS report that 47.8 million have died due to HIV/AIDS-related illnesses since its start as a global epidemic. In addition, 680000 people died due to HIV-related illnesses in 2020(UNAIDS, n.d.-a). UNICEF (2021) reports that about 330 children globally died due to HIV/AIDS-related illnesses daily in 2020. Factors such as inadequate access to HIV treatment and prevention contributed to most children’s mortalities.
Countries have adopted several interventions to address HIV/AIDS. One of the interventions adopted in most countries is increasing access to treatment by ensuring free antiretroviral drugs. Access to treatment prolongs the life of the affected and improves their overall quality of life (Chenneville et al., 2020; Mandsager et al., 2018). Screening services for HIV/AIDS are also free. The population can access free HIV testing and health educational services. The population also receives support in nutritional aid to address nutrition-related deficiencies.
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Conclusion
HIV/AIDS is an epidemic with a high disease burden globally. Epidemiological analysis shows the presence of the host, agent, and environmental factors that influence its spread globally. The community health nurse plays several roles in addressing HIV/AIDS. The roles include case finding, data collection, analysis, dissemination, and follow-up of patients. HIV/AIDS has several complications, which increase the need for timely treatment of identified cases. Vulnerable populations should be prioritized in policy decision-making to minimize the spread and impact of the disease in them. Agencies such as UNAIDS play vital roles in addressing HIV/AIDS. Countries should collaborate in implementing interventions that reduce the incidence and prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS to promote the health of the public.
References
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Chenneville, T., Gabbidon, K., Hanson, P., & Holyfield, C. (2020).The Impact of COVID-19 on HIV Treatment and Research: A Call to Action.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4548. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124548
Dieleman, J. L., Haakenstad, A., Micah, A., Moses, M., Abbafati, C., Acharya, P., Adhikari, T. B., Adou, A. K., Kiadaliri, A. A., Alam, K., Alizadeh-Navaei, R., Alkerwi, A., Ammar, W., Antonio, C. A. T., Aremu, O., Asgedom, S. W., Atey, T. M., Avila-Burgos, L., Awasthi, A., … Murray, C. J. L. (2018). Spending on health and HIV/AIDS: Domestic health spending and development assistance in 188 countries, 1995–2015.The Lancet, 391(10132), 1799–1829. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30698-6
Dumais, N. (2017). HIV/AIDS: Contemporary Challenges.BoD – Books on Demand.
Friedman, E. E., Dean, H. D., &Duffus, W. A. (2018). Incorporation of Social Determinants of Health in the Peer-Reviewed Literature: A Systematic Review of Articles Authored by the National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention. Public Health Reports, 133(4), 392–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918774788
Gopalappa, C., Farnham, P. G., Chen, Y.-H., &Sansom, S. L. (2017).Progression and Transmission of HIV/AIDS (PATH 2.0): A New, Agent-Based Model to Estimate HIV Transmissions in the United States.Medical Decision Making, 37(2), 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X16668509
HIV.GOV. (2021, June 2). U.S. Statistics. HIV.Gov. https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/data-and-trends/statistics
Hogan, J. W., Galai, N., & Davis, W. W. (2021).Modeling the Impact of Social Determinants of Health on HIV.AIDS and Behavior, 25(2), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03399-2
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Mandsager, P., Marier, A., Cohen, S., Fanning, M., Hauck, H., & Cheever, L. W. (2018).Reducing HIV-Related Health Disparities in the Health Resources and Services Administration’s Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program.American Journal of Public Health, 108(S4), S246–S250. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304689
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Sample Answer 2 for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by influenza viruses. It is commonly referred to as flu. It is a cause of pandemics and epidemics, although it is not so contagious as the common cold. There are many influenza viruses, each causing its disease; some are very similar but different. The symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, and coryza. Influenza can cause mild to severe illness in people of all ages. The condition, which is particularly quick and vigorous, has been observed to catch people during the fall and winter frequently. Reports indicate that millions of cases are reported worldwide during an epidemic season each year. Therefore, there is a need to prevent the disease. Vaccination is the most appropriate strategy to handle this health challenge. It helps to prevent the spread of the disease during its reach. Hence, according to the local healthcare department’s recommendation, people should seek vaccination yearly. This paper aims to describe influenza in terms of specific demographics, how various determinants of health contribute to its development, and the epidemiology triangle. Similarly, it will focus on the community health nurse’s role, the importance of demographic data, the national organization that works to address the disease, and the global implication.
Comprehensive Description of a Communicable Disease and the Demographic of Interest
Influenza is caused by influenza viruses infecting the upper respiratory tract. The viruses are classified as influenza A and B (Darricarrère et al., 2021). Each type causes distinct disease patterns, but both are capable of causing severe illness and death in young children, older adults, and people with other underlying health conditions who lack immunity to the virus (Kim & Chang, 2018). Influenza A viruses are further divided into subtypes based on the genetic makeup of their hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) protein subunits (Kim & Chang, 2018). Hemagglutinins comprises H1 and H3 on the surface of the virus. These proteins help the virus bind to sialic acid molecules on host cells, thus allowing the virus to attach to them and enter through the cell membrane. Once inside a cell, the virus replicates and infects another cell by attaching itself to sialic acids on this new host cell. The H1 protein is responsible for causing symptoms such as fever, chills, coughing, sneezing, and sore throat (Kim & Chang, 2018).
The H3 protein does not have these symptoms; however, it helps spread infection from one person to another through coughing or sneezing. Influenza B viruses are further divided into subtypes based on the genetic makeup of their PB1 and PA protein subunits (Kim & Chang, 2018). Influenza is a highly contagious disease that spreads quickly from person to person, household to household, school to school, and workplace to workplace. In general, influenza is spread through direct contact with respiratory secretions such as coughing, sneezing, or droplets expelled from a sick person (Boktor et al., 2021). It can also be transmitted from objects and surfaces contaminated with infected respiratory secretions, such as doorknobs and phones.
Also, it occurs through touching things like toys and books that have come into contact with infected surfaces. Most people recover from influenza within a week. However, some people develop complications such as pneumonia or even death if they contract influenza while they have underlying health problems such as asthma or diabetes. Preventing flu is more accessible than treating it once it spreads (Kim & Chang, 2018). Vaccination can prevent infection with many types of flu virus; nevertheless, not all flu vaccines work equally well for everyone (Mameli et al., 2019). Also, vaccination should be done early in the season when the highest risk exists for developing severe illness from flu virus infection.
Influenza is a reportable disease for the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS). It is when one can be tested for influenza and reported to the local or state health department or hospital as appropriate (Morabia, 2020). A person who has had an influenza-like illness and presents to the health care provider with a fever, cough, or other respiratory symptoms should report within 24 hours after the onset of symptoms. If the patient cannot contact a health care provider or hospital within 24 hours, it is necessary to call a local or state health department or hospital at once and ask them to accept the report (Morabia, 2020). Also, the patients should contact their public information office to confirm if they would accept reports from a specific area code phone number.
Determinants of Health and Explanation of How Determinants Contribute to Disease Development
The social conditions in which one is born lives, and ages significantly impact the spread of influenza. These social determinants are responsible for how the disease affects the body and the people’s health experiences (Seligman etal., 2021). These factors include access to health care services, public safety, and the availability of resources that satisfy everyday needs, such as safe housing and food (Social Determinants of Health, 2018). Besides, they include the availability of resources and the patient’s capacity to access medical care, and many other circumstances might improve one’s health, including but not limited to employment, education, and social support.
Like many other diseases, social factors in health influence the frequency of influenza-related mortality and the harm that impacts economic growth. Researchers have discovered a connection between the improvement of social elements and the prevention of influenza outbreaks. For instance, if the economy were to improve, more people would have access to vaccinations, which would help reduce disease prevalence (Fell et al., 2017). Additionally, it would be beneficial in providing researchers with more adequate resources to undertake studies to comprehend the nature of the disease and stop its spread. Therefore, strengthening the economy is essential to easing the burden of this illness on the population. Lack of educational possibilities may also affect how the disease is handled because it is more likely to cause adverse conditions if people are unaware of how to take it (Fell et al., 2017). Given that the infected persons might not be aware of the associated symptoms and the use of preventive actions, it could be fatal because it would spread exceptionally quickly.
Epidemiologic Triangle (Host Factors, Agent Factors, and Environmental Factors
According to Fell et al. (2017), the four components of the epidemiological triangle are time, host, environment, and agent. The numerous influenza virus strains related to the illness are linked to the illness’s epidemiological triangle and attack the upper respiratory system. Fell et al. (2017) reveal that influenza viruses use animals as carriers and have a quick mutation rate. This aspect demands that new vaccines be continuously produced each year. The most susceptible individuals to this illness are those with immunological deficiencies (Tanner et al., 2021). Because there are not enough environmental health determinists, health professionals are also at risk of contracting the disease. The sickness’ causal agent, moisture from infected individuals, is responsible for its transmission. According to Fell et al. (2017), influenza has an incubation and a symptomatic period between 5 and 7 days. After this period, there is the likelihood that the disease will stop being infectious to the host. However, the host may experience the symptoms for up to 14 days.
Role of the Community Health Nurse and Importance of Demographic Data
Community health nurses should contribute to researching influenza. They are responsible for collecting and reporting influenza statistics to CDC, just like many other communicable illnesses (Grohskopf et al., 2018). This information is essential for the CDC to accurately assess the sickness and develop workable tactics to stop its spread. Community health nurses also help the general public’s awareness of the illness. They can develop public relations strategies, campaigns, and studios to increase awareness. Through a greater understanding of the illness and its risks, these initiatives may seek to reduce the spread of the disease (Grohskopf et al., 2018). In addition, community health nurses can be at the forefront of promoting and advertising the program in society during immunization campaigns to ensure it reaches the public.
Similarly, nurses are responsible for providing patients with medical care to encourage healthy lives and stop the spread of disease. In addition to providing medical care to the ill, they can provide educational programs with advice on how to stop the spread of the illness by choosing healthy lives (Grohskopf et al., 2018). Community health nurses can assist the health departments in setting up screening procedures and immunization cases of influenza outbreaks. Also, they can offer the general public personal protective equipment to keep them from catching the disease.
National Agency or Organization That Works to Addresses Communicable Disease
Over the years, World Health Organization (WHO) has been at the forefront of addressing the effects of influenza. According to Ly et al. (2017), WHO was established on 22nd July 1946 as a United Nations office focusing on solving global influenza and other medical issues. It has successfully reduced the flu through practical measures, a significant contributing component. The group focuses on changing some of the mechanisms that regulate all pandemics caused by the disease. Because of its dedication to improving public health and wellbeing, the organization has conducted extensive research on preventing sporadic influenza outbreaks and spreading the virus from animal to human. One instance was the 2009 H1N1 influenza A test conducted in Mexico.
The introduction of a Pandemic Influenza Control (PIP) structure in the same year led to significant advancements in treating the condition. The system was intended to increase availability and significantly respond to the influenza epidemic. WHO works with its administrative bodies to create organizations for delivering impact populace training programs. The organization released the Global Influenza Strategy 2019–2030 on 11th March 2009 to protect the entire world’s population from influenza (Ly et al., 2017). According to Ly et al. (2017), the organization suggested using flu antibodies throughout the Northern Hemisphere’s 2019–2020 flu season. In addition, it has the Global Influenza Program, which aims to provide strategic direction, activity coordination, and technical support based on the threat from all types of influenza.
Global Implication
Influenza is a leading cause of global mortality and morbidity rates today. According to Ly et al. (2017), besides death, the disease has significant effects that cause major burdens towards the limited resources in the world. Therefore, the global implications of influenza are far-ranging and impact many industries. The economic costs of the pandemic have been staggering, with estimates placing them at $11.2 billion in the United States alone (Putri et al., 2018). These costs can be attributed to lost productivity, increased medical care expenses, travel disruptions, and even death. Similarly, in the last few decades, influenza viruses have evolved to overcome many antiviral drugs used to treat them. It has led to an exploding number of cases, with about 5-10% of adults and 20-30% of children worldwide becoming ill (Ly et al., 2017). These statistics contribute to between 3 and 5 million cases of influenza and nearly 1 million fatal cases worldwide (Ly et al., 2017). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that more than 200 different types of influenza A virus are circulating globally at any time. Vaccines or antiviral drugs do not recognize the majority of these types. Each year, the WHO publishes recommendations for countries on preparing for and responding to pandemic influenza outbreaks. These recommendations include using vaccines and antiviral drugs as their countries’ healthcare systems require. On the other hand, the influenza B virus is an endemic species to specific regions and does not spread globally. According to Ly et al. (2017), influenza B cases are reported in India and China.
Other diseases in several African nations exhibit symptoms similar to those of influenza. Due to the disease’s limited surveillance, they become confused (Ly et al., 2017). High poverty levels and weak health systems are present in various African nations, especially in the Sub-Saharan region. Similarly, the countries face significant obstacles brought on by illnesses like HIV and malaria, which change the focus of financial issues (Ly et al., 2017). The world must work together to address these issues and raise the region’s health standards. For instance, the CDC has significantly contributed to reducing malaria in Kenya through various programs.
Conclusion
Influenza is a contagious disease that spreads through contact with respiratory secretions, doorknobs, phones, and toys that have come into contact with infected surfaces. Vaccination can prevent infection with many flu viruses, but not all vaccines work equally well. A person with influenza-like symptoms should contact a health care provider or hospital within 24 hours. They can also get their public information office to confirm if they would accept reports from a specific area code phone number. The social conditions in which one is born lives, and ages significantly impact the spread of influenza. These social determinants include access to health care services, public safety, and the availability of resources that satisfy everyday needs, such as safe housing and food. The four components of the epidemiological triangle are time, host, environment, and agent.
Influenza viruses use animals as carriers and have a quick mutation rate, and the most susceptible individuals are those with immunological deficiencies. Community health nurses are responsible for collecting and reporting influenza statistics to the CDC, helping to develop public relations strategies to increase awareness of the illness, and providing medical care to patients to encourage healthy lives and stop the spread of disease. The World Health Organization is a United Nations agency that works to address infectious diseases. It has successfully reduced the flu through practical measures and created organizations to deliver impact training programs.
Influenza is a leading cause of global mortality and morbidity rates today. It has significant effects that cause major burdens towards the limited resources in the world and has cost the United States $11.2 billion. The WHO estimates that more than 200 different types of influenza A virus are circulating globally at any time. It recommends that countries use vaccines and antiviral drugs as their healthcare systems require. African nations face significant obstacles due to illnesses like HIV and malaria, which change the focus of financial issues. The world must work together to address these issues.
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Sample Answer 3 for NRS 428 Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases
Epidemiology Paper: Chicken Pox
Also referred to as Varicella, chicken pox is viral condition that has high levels of contagiousness. The condition is particularly prevalent in children and manifests through early eruption of the papules and vesicles. Further, the condition also produces fever and mild constitutional disturbances. Physicians were only able to differentiate chicken from smallpox in the 19th century. Nevertheless, chicken pox was first described in the 16th century by a physician called Giovani Filippo. Following the description, William Heberden formulated a differentiation of small pox and chicken pox varicella in the year 1767 (Presti et al., 2019). Further research was conducted by Von Bokay, who reported in the year 1875 that the causative agent of the condition was an infectious agent. Moreover, in the year 1909, Von Bokay made a maiden observation of the differences between the two diseases. The causative agent of chicken pox was isolated in the year 1954 by Thomas Weller, whereas Michiaki Takahashi proceeded to create a maiden attenuated vaccine in the year 1972. The present paper will thus examine the epidemiological aspects of chicken pox.
Chicken Pox Description
The varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a causative agent for the chicken pox diseases, which is airborne in nature. The transmission of the condition occurs through person-to-person means via coughing or sneezing, as well as inhalation of the particles by an unaffected person. Moreover, viral particles that have been shed from a sick person’s body can transmit the disease via contact or inhalation (Yu, Ashworth, Hughes, & Jones, 2018). As such, even indirect means of transmission such as items that had direct contact with active blisters. Incidentally, unvaccinated individuals who have never contacted the chicken pox are at high risk of developing the disease. Experts consider the varicella zoster virus as contagious in 1-2 days upon whose end a person develops rashes and scrubs that emanate from the blisters. However, the incubation period for the condition is 14-16 days after which period the symptoms manifest (Presti et al., 2019). The original symptoms of the disease have commonalities with common cold and they include sore throat, malaise, running nose, and fever. The red spot will start having a presence around the body immediately it begins manifesting. Normally, the spots would appear on the trunk and scalp, which precedes spreading outwards. Moreover, the mucus membrane is also affected in the manner that the spots will be noted on the mouth and along the nasal cavities. The spots will then graduate into vesicles in the form of elevated lumps that have lucid teardrop shaped blisters, which will the quickly turn to crusty lesions within 8 hours (Gray & Cathie, 2019). Novel spots will undergo continual development as the old ones disappear after healing. Researchers opine that it will take a total of five days for the development of new lesions to stop. On the other hand, the crusts will take up to twenty days to start disappearing from the body.
Moreover, intense itching is also amongst the symptomatology of the condition and it gives a person the irresistible urge to scratch, which phenomenon may result in certain complications including cellulitis. According to Cassidy and McBrien (2019), the cellulitis is a skin infection that results from bacteria. Additional symptoms that may be caused by chicken pox entail encephalitis, necrotizing fasciitis, sepsis, invasive group A streptococcal infection as well as Reye syndrome. People whose immune systems are poor or have been compromised are the ones that develop the above complications. The diagnosis of the condition is confirmed based on the presence of symptomatology such as fever and rash. In the event that a physician would be interested in the confirmation of the condition, a specimen in the form of lesion fluid is taken to the laboratory and cultured within 5-10 days.
The treatment of the condition focuses on managing the symptomatology associated with infectious conditions including fever and itchiness reduction. The reason for this preference is that most Chicken pox infections are not easy and they may resolve themselves only after 2-3 weeks. Antihistamines such as Benadryl and Atarax are principally recommended when it comes to the management of the pruritus (Shin et al., 2017). Moreover, topical treatment and wet compresses may be used to offer the patient immediate relief from blister pain. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen as non-steroidal inflammatory drugs are used to handle the fever. Owing to the viral nature of the condition, pharmacological agents inclusive of acyclovir, famciclovir, and valacyclovir as antiviral agents are used to manage the condition. The antiviral agents work by reducing the itching intensity and increasing the healing process by shortening the infection period. In order for the pharmacological agents to offer maximum therapeutic impact, a patient should start on using them within the first 24 hours of contracting the disease (Duncan, 2019). However, non-pharmacological inte4rventions such as adequate amount of electrolytes and fluids to cushion a patient against dehydration from the infection should also be incorporated into the therapy. Hygienic behaviors such as having short nails and taking frequent baths form part of the recommended prophylactic measures in the management of the condition.
Chicken pox also has a vaccine known as Varivax that was created and approved by the FDA in the year 1955. The vaccine is effective in children that are more than a year. The vaccine has 90% effectiveness (Reisinger et al., 2019). The vaccine’s effectiveness is also manifested in the mild symptoms that appear after one develops the condition after receiving it. Moreover, Varivax also protects individuals from other diseases including shingles. Shingles is a severely painful rash that is influenced by varicella-zoster. In order to cause shingles, the varicella-zoster virus has a dormant period around the spinal cord and the brain of individuals who may have suffered from chickenpox which dormancy can undergo reactivation.
The prevalence of chickenpox is high amongst the teenage population that are 15 years and below with most it being registered in children between ages 1-4. Prior to the development of the Varivax, the disease affected nearly 4 million children annually with average mortality of 105 and over 10 500 hospitalizations (Senders, Bundick, Li, Zecca, & Helmond, 2018). The CDC reveals that over 95% US adults contract the disease at least once in their lifetime. Nevertheless, Varivax managed to successfully reduce the mortality and morbidity of chicken pox with only mild symptoms manifesting in a few people. Therefore, the adoption of the two-dose Varivax for all children has dramatically decreased incidences of the disease.
The United States of America recommended that all infections related to chicken pox should be reported since the year 2003. The CDC offered guidelines that consisted of a three core variables including patient vaccination status, disease severity, and age (Reisinger et al., 2019). Moreover, the CDC recommended the reporting of clinical, epidemiologic, and demographic data alongside the data related to patient infection. Also, the CDC established guidelines related to varicella messaging so as to aid in information documentation concerning the chicken pox infection by the respective respondents.
Social Determinants of Health
The Healthy People 2020 offered the social determinants of health definition as the conditions in the environment that individuals are given birth in, raised, play, work, learn, age and worship, which impact numerous functioning facets of life, health and overall quality, alongside their outcomes and associated risks (Luyten & Beutels, 2016). In regards to chicken pox, social determinants such as education, access to health care, resource availability, cultural beliefs, and public safety play an integral role in the prevalence of the disease. According to research, genetic factors and personal behaviors cannot comprehensively offer an explanation concerning infectious disease disparities as standalones. Further, overlapping, complex, as well as integrated economic systems and social structures require reviews so as to fully explain mortality and morbidity related to a certain infectious condition. Individual living in poverty such as the ones lacking medical cover or those with low income have a higher predisposition to the disease since they do not seek medical attention or fail to do so regularly due to cost implications. On the other hand, distribution shortages in minority populations and language barriers may also influence the development of the disease condition. The illiteracy factor may also influence the development and spread of chickenpox since the victims may have less knowledge regarding the vaccine in lieu of vaccination time, and the preventative measures when one of them is infected (Keefe, Lane, Heyman, & Congress, 2018). Due to the contagious nature of the disease, social structures inclusive of education as well as public awareness are preferred so as to ensure that community members are equipped with knowledge on preventative measures including personal hygiene so as to cushion the population against viral spread.
The Epidemiologic Triangle
The epidemiologic triangle consists of three principal tenets: the host or susceptible person, the environment within which the person stays, and the causative agent for a disease. The epidemiological triangle plays an integral role when it comes to assessing the natural history related to a certain condition. The information contained in the epidemiologic triangle is important when it comes to the prevention of the advancement of a contagious disease (Hanson & Weinstock, 2016). It helps stakeholders to identify the triangle’s weak points so as to address the threat. The achievement of the above occurs via the execution of preventative activities alongside enhancement of the efforts to reduce disease seriousness via considerations such as death risks, disease severity, costs, the disease’s long- and short-term impacts, as well as the length of the illness. Thus, the epidemiologic triangle aids in the connection of the linkage between the varicella-zoster virus and humans, who function as the principal hosts. The triangle further shows transmission modes including coughing and sneezing, which predispose people to the viral particles that result in infection via inhalation.
Moreover, the triangle also offers an association between the period of the year when the prevalence of the condition is high (Smith, 2019). For example, the outbreak of the condition undergoes fluctuations in the United States with prevalence being the highest during early spring period as well as the winter period. Specifically, between March and May, the United States registers the highest cases of chickenpox while the incidences become lowest in September all the way to November (Conway et al., 2018). The above information makes it significant for members of a community to receive notifications if an outbreak of the disease occurs so as to cushion themselves using appropriate modalities.
Role of the Community Health Nurse
The role of the community health nurse in the prevention and management of communicable diseases such as chicken pox cannot be underestimated. All of them must possess rudimentary knowledge on communicable conditions, alongside a lucid comprehension of the causes, incubation time, transmission modes, symptomatology, preventative interventions, available care plans and treatment modalities. By possessing such information, a community health nurse will place their focus on managing the disease symptoms while simultaneously cushioning the population against its spread. Further, community health nurses also need to undertake patient as well as community awareness around the significance of the vaccination of the disease, its transmission, symptom management, and prevention of disease spread amongst community members. The community health nurse is also required to identify the risk factors associated with chicken pox and other communicable diseases and then devise strategies that will cushion community members (Joyce et al., 2018). The high contagiousness of the diseases means that community nurses are required to frequently formulate reports based on the disease management guidelines offered by the CDC so as to examine disease progress and similarly formulate recommendations that would limit its morbidity. Equipped with adequate information, it becomes easy for the community health nurse to examine the pharmacotherapies used for the management of the condition as well as their effectiveness based on the feedback acquired from community members. For this reason, the posterity of the management of the condition will only involve the reinforcement of productive methods so as to reduce disease burden.
National Agencies and Organizations Handling Chickenpox
The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization form the two principal organizations that collate data and offer latest information concerning the condition. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has offered adequate information regarding the presenting signs of chickenpox, its transmission, its causative agent, morbidity and mortality, prevention as well as complications in addition to others. Further, the CDC has also offered a kid-friendly fact sheet whose function is to offer information regarding the condition to the concerned stakeholders in a manner that is friendly (Presti et al., 2019). The WHO on the other hand ensures that it adds information on travel risks as well as preventative strategies when visiting chickenpox endemic regions to the information offered by the CDC (De Vito et al., 2017). The National Foundation for Infectious Diseases (NFID) and the National Shingles Foundation are the two foundations that address chickne pox issues. The former foundation is non-profit in nature and it was created to aid in public awareness creation and health care education concerning the prevalence, causes, treament and preventions associated with numerous communicable conditions including chicken pox. The organizarion purposs to use education so as to promote the health of various individualls globally. On the other hand, the National Shingles Organization also facilitates the fight agianst chicken pox using research undertakings and education.
The Global Implications of Chicken Pox
The World Health Organization states that chocken pox is a contagioius comdition, viral in nature and has wordlwide distribution. The chickenpox vaccine program for chindren that is available universally wa fomrulated in the United Statws in the year 1995 and implemented in the same year so as to prevent the chickenpox epdiemic in the country. The vaccone currently receives application worldwide but is only utilized in a few nations such as Korea, Geramnay, Australia and Japan wherein its usage has received extensive coverage (Gray & Cathie, 2019). The vaccine has been effective in the mentioned countries since it has greatly reduced morbidity and moratlity rates related to chickenpox. However, the vaccine is still premimum in most countries, especially developing nations, which implies that the disease still exists at epidemic levels worldwide. The worldwide burdne for the condition is still high with 4.2 million cases reported and 4200 annual deaths recorded.
Conclusion
The burden associated with chiekenpox disease was unbearable before the discovery of the Virivax vaccine in the uear 1995. However, this burden underwnt a significant reduction in the region of 90% from the year 1995 to the year 2005. Presently, only a few cases ae recorded in developed countriers but developing nations still expericne its ravaging effects. As such, comtinnuous public awanress and forumation of preventatiibe measures is necessary to manage the effects of the disease. More seriousnes is thus requried to address it at the global level.
References
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Gray, S. J., & Cathie, K. (2019). Fifteen-minute consultation: Chickenpox vaccine—should parents immunise their children privately?. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Education and Practice, 104(3), 120-123.
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