NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

Walden University NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience-Step-By-Step Guide

 

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience  assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

 

How to Research and Prepare for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

 

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University   NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

 

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

 

How to Write the Introduction for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

 

The introduction for the Walden University   NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

 

How to Write the Body for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience 

 

After the introduction, move into the main part of the  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

 

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

 

How to Write the Conclusion for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

 

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

 

How to Format the References List for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

 

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Sample Answer for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

Agonist-To-Antagonist Spectrum of Action of Psychopharmacologic Agents

In reference to drugs, medications may act as agonist nor antagonist. As an agonist, drugs bind to a certain target receptor, altering its action to produce a reaction. Agonist drugs activates the maximum receptor in the brain while a partial agonist produces a sub-maximal response when in contact with a receptor (Berg & Clarke, 2018). On the other hand, antagonist, binds to target receptors without producing any response, thus inhibiting agonist from occupying the receptor. The inverse agonists decrease the activity of a receptor imitating the reverse effect of an agonist (Nutt et, al. 2016).

Compare and contrast the actions of G couple proteins and Ion gated channels.

GPCR, located in eukaryotes consist of the main category of plasma membrane receptors. They play a major role as the primary targets for many drugs as well as binds to various types of ligands (Alvaro & Thorner, 2016).  They transform signals from extracellular ligands to signals in intracellular relay of proteins, hence bonding with nucleotide guanosine triphosphate, and hydrolyzation occurs forming GDP. Ion gated channels are proteins that regulate the flow of selected ions passively across the plasma membrane. Due to the nature of gated channel, they only open under certain conditions such as specific ligands including ligand-gated ion channels, or for a specific electrical potential known as voltage-gated channels.

The main function of membrane receptors is to relay extracellular signals to the cell interior, thus allowing cells to communicate with each other and sense the extracellular environment. Other classes of membrane receptors are ion channels or possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity that generates an intracellular signal upon activation. In contrast, GPCRs rely on their interaction with G proteins to transmit signals to membrane-bound effectors including ion channels and enzymes (Glukhova et, al. 2018). The involvement of G proteins as intermediate transducers plays a critical role in ensuring the high flexibility, sensitivity, and specificity observed in GPCR signaling. A thorough understanding of how GPCRs and G proteins interact in our cells is vital to completely comprehend their role in physiology, disease as well as how to improve controlling them for pharmacological purposes (Krishnan & Schioth, 2015).

Role of Epigenetics and Pharmacologic Action

Epigenetics involves biological processes such as DNA methylation or histone modification that do not change the genome sequence but alter gene expressions. Epigenetics also explains the study of genetic information, changes and modifications coded in gene expression. The study of epigenetics has enhanced the understanding of various disease processes and the manufacturing of medications to treat diseases (Cavalli & Heard, 2019). Diseases/ conditions including cancers and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease are often associated with epigenetic alteration, hence may be caused by a single base mutation. With the application of advanced technology such as genome testing and screening, the invention of pharmacological treatments is made possible in creating personalized, optimal, and specific disease management with potential prediction (Khoury & Holt, 2021).

Pharmacogenomics and The Impact on Mental Health Patients

Pharmacogenomics is an area of research that studies how an individual’s genes affect how the body responds to medications. Its long-term goal is to help providers select the drugs and doses best suited for each person. It is part of the field of precision medicine, which seeks in treating each patient individually. Pharmacogenomics help clinicians to map out personalized treatment to patients-based individual’s genetic pattern and response to drugs (Huang et, al. 20230). In the field of psychiatric medicine, understanding the genetic make-up of patients as well as how the body systems respond to certain drugs may assist providers determine the tolerability and metabolic impact to patients. For example, people with genetic variant with CYP2C9 gene alleles with reduced enzyme activity may need a decreased doses of certain drugs as opposed to patients with a normal CYP2C9 (Fekete et, al. 2021). Lithium toxicity can easily occur in patients with reduced or no enzyme activity as the liver metabolize medications slower resulting in build of the drug in the system. Another example could be seen in patients with duplications/multiplications of the wild-type allele, the body systems metabolize drugs quicker, thus may require a higher dose of medications (Butler, 2020).

References

Alvaro, C.G., Thorner, J. (2016).  Heterotrimeric G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in Yeast Mating Pheromone Response. J Biol Chem 291: 7788–7795, 2016. doi:10.1074/jbc.R116.714980.
Crossref

Links to an external site. | PubMed

Links to an external site. |

Berg, K. A., Clarke, W.P. (2018). Making Sense of Pharmacology: Inverse Agonism and Functional Selectivity, International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, Volume 21, Issue 10, October 2018, Pages 962–977, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy071

Links to an external site.

Cavalli, G., Heard, E. (2019). Advances in Epigenetics link Genetics to the Environment and Disease. Nature 571, 489–499 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1411-0

Links to an external site.

Fekete, F., Mangó, K., Déri, M. (2012). Impact of Genetic and Non-Genetic Factors on Hepatic CYP2C9 Expression and Activity in Hungarian Subjects. Sci Rep 11, 17081 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96590-3

Glukhova, A., Draper-Joyce, C.J., Sunahara, R.K., Christopoulos, A., Wootten, D., Sexton, P.M. (2018).  Rules of Engagement: GPCRs and G Proteins. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2018 Sep 7;1(2):73-83. doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.8b00026. PMID: 32219204; PMCID: PMC7089011.

Huang, S S., Chen, Y T., Su, M. H. (2023).  Investigating Genetic variants for Treatment response to Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in Syndromal Factors and Side Effects among Patients with Depression in Taiwanese Han population. Pharmacogenomics J (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41397-023-00298-8

Khoury, M.J., Holt, K.E. (2021). The Impact of Genomics on Precision Public Health: beyond the pandemic. Genome Med 13, 67 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13073-021-00886-Y

Krishnan, A., Schioth, H.B.  (2015). The role of G protein-completed receptors in the early evolutiona of neurotransmission and the nervous system.J Exp Biol 218: 562-571,2015. Dio:10 1242/jeb.110312. Crossref{PubMed}

 Butler, M.G. (2020). Pharmacogenetics and Psychiatric Care: A Review and Commentary. Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences and Pediatrics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA

Nutt, D., Stahl, S., Blier, P., Drago, F., Zohar, J., Wilson, S. (2016). Inverse Agonists – What do they mean for psychiatry? Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017 Jan;27(1):87-90. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.11.013. Epub 2016 Dec 7. PMID: 27955830

 

Sample Answer 2 for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the human central nervous system to understand the brain’s dysfunction that can lead to disease, mental disorders, and physical impairment (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019). The complex design of a neuron is the basic understanding of communication by sending impulses to other body organs. The brain controls human behavior and the functions of body organs. The anatomy and physiology of the brain help understand the part of the brain affected by mental illness. For example, poor concentration and cognitive skills dysfunction is the forebrain pathology. Additionally, one can understand the mode of action of psychopharmacology. For example, antidepressants may function by inhibiting the serotonin or epinephrine receptors.

An Agonist-To-Antagonist Spectrum of Action and How Partial and Inverse Agonists Influence Psychopharmacologic

An antagonist binds at the receptors by blocking any event of an agonist, hence, blocking the biological response. For example, naloxone is a competitive opioid antagonist and has no effects with opioid co-administration (Gicquelais, et al, 2019). An agonist binds to a receptor causing activation of the receptor, hence, the biological response. A partial agonist activates the receptors partially with lesser effect on the brain. For example, buprenorphine is a partial agonist, and therefore, an antagonist may block its opioid function without activating its receptors. An inverse receptor binds with constitutively active receptors and inhibits receptor activity by exerting opposite pharmacological effects that suppress spontaneous receptor signaling.

Comparison between Actions of G Couple Proteins and Ion Gated Channels

G coupled proteins GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that convert extracellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, olfaction, and taste signals. The GPCRs work by binding to the hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors to initiate a cellular response. The three types of G-couple receptors are alpha, beta, and gamma, in which the ligands bind and activate (Yudin & Rohacs 2019). Ion gated channels are integral membrane proteins of excitable cells that allow a flux of ions to pass only under defined circumstances. These channels are voltage-gated sodium channel neurons and ligand-dated acetylcholine receptors of the cholinergic synapses. The ion gated channel pull and bonds to the agonist changing the protein while g coupled proteins are used by the cells to convert intracellular signals into responses.

The Role of Epigenetics In the Pharmacologic Action

Epigenetics regulate gene activity by switching off the gene activity or activating the gene activity. Epigenetics plays a role in the phenotypic activity of the cell in diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Epigenetics modify gene expressions after drug administration to counteract the disease states in humans. Epigenetics proves its effectiveness in treating psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders to its ability to modify gene expressions.

The Significance of the Information to Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner

A psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner should have basic knowledge of the concepts of foundational neuroscience. Understanding the function of agonists, inverse and partial agonists, and antagonists prevent co-administration of drugs that agonize and antagonize the same receptors. For example, in treating a patient with a depressive mood disorder, prescribing antipsychotics such as fluphenazine worsens the depressive mood because it antagonizes the dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors depressing the release of the hypothalamic hormone.

References

Gicquelais, R. E., Bohnert, A. S., Thomas, L., & Foxman, B. (2020). Opioid agonist and antagonist use and the gut microbiota: associations among people in addiction treatment. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76570-9

Karmarkar, U. R., & Plassmann, H. (2019). Consumer neuroscience: Past, present, and future. Organizational Research Methods, 22(1), 174-195.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094428117730598

Yudin, Y., & Rohacs, T. (2019). The G‐protein‐biased agents PZM21 and TRV130 are partial agonists of μ‐opioid receptor‐mediated signalling to ion channels. British journal of pharmacology, 176(17), 3110-3125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.14702

Sample Answer 3 for  NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

Psychopharmacologic drugs work in a range of ways, from agonists to antagonists. An agonist binds chemically to a receptor, activating the receptor and triggering a biological response (Weir, 2020).

According to Berg and Clarke (2018), the conventional drug-receptor theory describes how medicines behave, how they interact with receptors, and how agonists and antagonists work in terms of affinity and intrinsic efficacy. Berg and Clark’s study of the idea shows that drugs can act as either agonists or antagonists. Conversely, agonist medicines have both intrinsic efficacy and affinity, while antagonist drugs only have a connection and no inherent efficacy. The authors claim that the antagonists lessen the possibility that the agonist drug will be occupied by occupying the receptor cells. On the other hand, greater agonist doses lead to increased agonist receptor occupancy, which inhibits antagonistic effects. A full agonist may have distinct intrinsic efficacies from a partial agonist, even when the latter induces a submaximal response. The effectiveness of a partial agonist is higher than that of a complete agonist. A complete agonist delivers the most reactions that a system is capable of producing.

Finally, because the post-receptor signaling pathway is full, an agonist can still cause a maximal response without using up all the receptors. This is called the spare receptors, which are also called the receptor reserve.

Your shared information will influence my decision to prescribe medication to patients by allowing me to assess each patient on an individual basis and consider the potential long-term effects of the drug. For instance, multiple patients with similar diagnoses of neurodegenerative disorders may receive different treatments because of a variety of factors, including genetic testing, prior medical history, and general health status, as a result of side effects from treatments. Because of factors including pharmacodynamics, kinetics, and metabolic rate, some drugs may be effective for some patients but ineffective for others.

References

Berg, K. A., & Clarke, W. P. (2018). Making Sense of Pharmacology: Inverse Agonism and Functional Selectivity. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21 (10), 962–977. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy071

Links to an external site.

Weir, C. J. (2020). Ion channels, receptors, agonists, and antagonists. Anesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine,11 (9), 377-383. Retrieved December 8, 2020, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpaic.2010.06.002

As a psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner, it is essential for you to have a strong background in foundational neuroscience. In order to diagnose and treat clients, you must not only understand the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders, but also how medications for these disorders impact the central nervous system. These concepts of foundational neuroscience can be challenging to understand. Therefore, this Discussion is designed to encourage you to think through these concepts, develop a rationale for your thinking, and deepen your understanding by interacting with your colleagues.

Required Readings

Note: All Stahl resources can be accessed through the Library using this link. This link will take you to a log-in page for the Library. Once you log into the library, the Stahl website will appear.

Stahl, S. M. (2013). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications (4th ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press *Preface, pp. ix–x

Note: To access the following chapters, click on the Essential Psychopharmacology, 4th ed tab on the Stahl Online website and select the appropriate chapter. Be sure to read all sections on the left navigation bar for each chapter.

Chapter 1, “Chemical Neurotransmission”

Also Read: NURS 6630 Discussion Reflect On Concepts Of Foundational Neuroscience

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Chapter 2, “Transporters, Receptors, and Enzymes as Targets of Psychopharmacologic Drug Action”

Chapter 3, “Ion Channels as Targets of Psychopharmacologic Drug Action”

Document: Midterm Exam Study Guide (PDF)

Document: Final Exam Study Guide (PDF)

Required Media

Laureate Education (Producer). (2016i). Introduction to psychopharmacology [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 3 minutes.

Accessible player

Optional Resources

Laureate Education (Producer). (2009). Pathopharmacology: Disorders of the nervous system: Exploring the human brain [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 15 minutes.

Dr. Myslinski reviews the structure and function of the human brain. Using human brains, he examines and illustrates the development of the brain and areas impacted by disorders associated with the brain.

Accessible player

Laureate Education (Producer). (2012). Introduction to advanced pharmacology [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 8 minutes.

In this media presentation, Dr. Terry Buttaro, associate professor of practice at Simmons School of Nursing and Health Sciences, discusses the importance of pharmacology for the advanced practice nurse.

Accessible player

To prepare for this Discussion:

Review this week’s Learning Resources.

Reflect on concepts of foundational neuroscience.

Sample Answer 4 for NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

Pharmacological agents produce both agonist and antagonist actions in different receptors in the human body. The agonist and antagonist actions of pharmacological agents work against one another. The agonists combine with the receptor to produce an action in the body. On the other hand, antagonist action hinders or opposes the action by a receptor, thereby, leading to a failure of an occurrence of an event. The effect of agonists is attributed to the combination it has with compounds or chemical substances to promote the desired action while that of antagonist entails the combination with chemicals or blockage of neurotransmitters to cause interference with action. Partial and inverse agonists have an effect on the efficacy of psychopharmacological agents. Partial agonists bind to a specific receptor to produce partial efficacy at that receptor that is relative to the effect of full agonist. The partial enhancement of the actions of the receptor results in a net decline in the activation of the receptor hence, average activity of the receptor in producing the desired action. Inverse agonists work by binding to a receptor as an antagonist to produce an action that is opposite to that of the agonist (Demler, 2019). Inverse agonists mimic the agonist activity of the receptors, hence, the desired therapeutic activity of psychopharmacological agents.

G-couple proteins and ion-gated channels are the mechanisms in which cells communicate to produce actions. They comprise of the cell-surface receptors that play the roles of signal transfer in multicellular organisms. The two however differ in a number of aspects. Ion-gated channels have receptors that bind to a ligand to cause opening of channels via membranes to allow the passage of specific ions. Ion-gated channels do not allow the passage of fatty acids and amino acids because they are hydrophobic in nature. Ion-gated channels therefore mediate rapid, post-synaptic responses. G-proteins channels on the other hand have receptors that bind and active G-protein on cell membranes. The activation of G-proteins results in cyclic series that cause entry of proteins such as amino acids and fatty acids into the cell to produce action (Hood & Khan, 2020). The G-proteins therefore mediate slow post-synaptic responses.

Epigenetics has a role in pharmacologic actions of drugs. Firstly, changes in the expression of enzymes that metabolize drugs may affect the action as well as metabolism of a drug. For example, changes in enzymes due to aspects such as DNA methylation affects the metabolism of drugs, leading to their altered effectiveness. The addition of methyl group to the cytosine pyrimidine ring causes silencing of transcription, thereby, hindering the binding of co-activators and transcription factors that are needed for metabolism and action of drugs. The second influence of epigenetics is the genetic variations in the transporters of drugs. A genetic change in the transporters of drugs such as ATP binding cassette transporters and solute carrier transporter affect the binding and action of pharmacological agents (Castelo-Branco & Jeronimo, 2020).

The above information will affect my prescribing of medications to patients. For instance, it will translate into my understanding of the disease process and the targets of the medications that I prescribe to the patients. The implication of the information also entails the need for comprehensive patient assessment to identify any relevant patient history that may affect the effectiveness of the prescribed medications. I should also be aware of the contraindications of specific medications to patients with history of allergies or comorbid conditions (Hood & Khan, 2020). Therefore, the information will inform my safe prescribing in my professional role as an advanced practice nurse.

 

 

References

Castelo-Branco, P., & Jeronimo, C. (2020). Histone Modifications in Therapy. Elsevier Science.

Demler, T. L. (2019). Pharmacotherapeutics for Advanced Nursing Practice, Revised Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Hood, P., & Khan, E. (2020). Understanding Pharmacology in Nursing Practice. Springer Nature.

Sample Answer 5 for NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

I also believe the use of buspirone is in order because it is an anxiolytic drug, and beyond that, off-labeled buspirone is being used for the augmentation of unipolar depression. Although buspirone originally was developed as an antipsychotic but was found ineffective for psychosis, it had useful anxiolytic features (Wilson, 2023). Buspirone has recently gained popularity, largely because it has fewer side effects than other anti-anxiety treatments. Buspirone is primarily used to treat generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). It is an FDA-approved drug used to treat anxiety disorders and for short-term relief of anxiety symptoms.

However, it is important to understand the appropriate indications, doses, side effects, and toxicities before initiating buspirone therapy. The patient should also be educated on how to use drugs safely and ensure correct dosages. Additionally, in rare cases where there is evidence of substance abuse, healthcare professionals have a responsibility to ensure that patients are using buspirone only for legitimate purposes.

In addition, the patient should be educated to avoid taking alcohol as well some juices such as grapefruit while on buspirone, because talking alcohol while on this medication can lead to increased drowsiness and feeling lightheaded and even more severe problems such as problems with muscle control, memory, and breathing. Grapefruit on the other hand can change the way the drug moves through the body, potentially leading to excess absorption of buspirone in the body (Cuncic, 2022).

 

References

Cuncic, A. (2022). BuSpar Uses, Side Effects, and Dosages. https://www.verywellmind.com/buspar-treatment-of-social-anxiety-disorder-3024958

Wilson T. K., Tripp, J. (2023). Buspirone. StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531477/

Sample Answer 6 for NURS 6630 Discussion Foundational Neuroscience

In addition to your post, let me add that psychopharmacology investigates the impact of medications on the brain and behavior, as well as the range of effects pharmaceuticals may have, which can vary from stimulating to inhibiting. Agonists act as neuron transmitter enhancers because their mechanism of action is like that of natural neuron transmitters, while antagonists are medications whose activities inhibit or block the activities of a targeted neuron transmitter at the receptor site (Azhagiya Singam, et al., 2019). Carefully selecting medications that act as agonists or antagonists for neurotransmitters allows for targeted treatment of several mental disorders; these medications help restore brain balance and alleviate symptoms by modulating the activity of neurotransmitters. Partial inverse agonists are medications that attach to the same receptor as an agonist but provide a lesser effect, which is useful in conditions where excessive receptor activation needs to be regulated (Berg & Clarke, 2018); however, they significantly impact diverse medical therapies.

There is a difference between ion-gated receptors and GPCRs regarding the signals they detect and how they work. They are adaptable and capable of detecting a broad spectrum of signals from hormones and neurotransmitters. On the other hand, ion-gated receptors directly regulate ion movement across the membrane by permitting the passage of ions like sodium, potassium, or calcium (Peng & Zhong,2015). In order to understand cellular signaling processes and create specific treatments for different illnesses, it is essential to understand how g-couple proteins and ion-gated channels work.

Epigenetic alterations to histones may change gene accessibility, making certain genes more accessible for transcription and others less accessible (Mazzone et al.,2019). This alteration, in turn, affects how pharmacologic medications work, leading to individual differences in how pharmaceuticals work.

Epigenetics changes the efficacy of drug metabolism, which is a major way it affects the prescription of psychiatric drugs (Wu et al.,2023). Many psychiatric drugs aim to alter neurotransmitter activity and reduce symptoms by targeting specific receptors in the brain. However, epigenetic changes may also impact these receptors’ expression by altering receptor expression, potentially reducing the effectiveness of certain medications. Hence, understanding the role of epigenetics will help a provider make sound prescription decisions that will be the best outcome for the patient.

References.

Azhagiya Singam, E. R., Tachachartvanich, P., La Merrill, M. A., Smith, M. T., & Durkin, K. A. (2019). Structural Dynamics of Agonist and Antagonist Binding to the Androgen Receptor. The journal of physical chemistry. B, 123(36), 7657–7666. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.9b05654.

Berg, K. A., & Clarke, W. P. (2018). Making Sense of Pharmacology: Inverse Agonism and Functional Selectivity. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology, 21(10), 962–977. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy071.

Mazzone, R., Zwergel, C., Artico, M., Taurone, S., Ralli, M., Greco, A., & Mai, A. (2019). The emerging role of epigenetics in human autoimmune disorders. Clinical epigenetics, 11(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13148-019-0632-2.

Wu, T., Cai, W., & Chen, X. (2023). Epigenetic regulation of neurotransmitter signaling in neurological disorders. Neurobiology of disease, 184, 106232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106232

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