NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

Walden University NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion-Step-By-Step Guide

 

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion  assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

 

How to Research and Prepare for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

 

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University   NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

 

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

 

How to Write the Introduction for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

 

The introduction for the Walden University   NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

 

How to Write the Body for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion 

 

After the introduction, move into the main part of the  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

 

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

 

How to Write the Conclusion for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

 

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

 

How to Format the References List for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

 

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Sample Answer for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

Prescribers must understand the agonist-to-antagonist action of psychopharmacologic medications. The spectrum of activity is classified as an agonist, antagonist, partial agonist, and inverse agonist. An agonist binds to the receptor and activates the receptor to cause a change to its maximum capacity. An antagonist has the affinity to attach to the receptor. However, it does not produce any effect. It prevents the activity of the agonist (Cardoso et al., 2021). A partial agonist binds to the receptor and partially activates the receptor but cannot produce the maximum capacity (Mizuguchi et al., 2020). It also prevents the activity of full agonists (Cardoso et al., 2021). An inverse agonist binds to the receptor site to prevent the activity of the receptor site and triggers an opposite effect.

An example is the relationship between opioids, buprenorphine, and Naloxone. Opioid such as morphine (agonist) activates the receptor site, while buprenorphine (Partial agonist) will activate the receptors partially and prevent the action of the morphine. Naloxone(antagonist) will not generate any action at the receptor site. However, when morphine and buprenorphine are present, it blocks both agents’ actions from occurring (Mizuguchi et al., 2020).

Acetylcholine receptors are categorized as muscarinic and nicotinic. The muscarinic receptors are second messengers, the G couple protein. They impact postganglionic parasympathetic nervous system functions, activation is comparatively slow, and they affect cellular homeostasis (Camprodon & Roffman, 2016). The nicotinic receptor is the ion channel that permits a rapid inflow of sodium and calcium into the postsynaptic neuron. Both G couple protein and ion gate channels are stimulated by acetylcholine and transported by the neuronal and nonneuronal cells through the body (Jelinek et al., 2021).

Epigenetics is the process by which the function of a gene can be modified devoid of altering the DNA molecule, and the modification in genetic function could be inherited (Camprodon & Roffman, 2016). Epigenetics has become known as a mediator of environmental and genetic risk factors that may play a role in disease onset. Epigenetic changes have frequently been studied as disease-specific. These would provide prospective pharmacological interventions to manipulate genes that could alleviate a genetic disease (Alameda et al., 2022).

The impact of epigenetics on individual genes may vary depending on environmental and genetic risk factors. As a result, a psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner should give an individualized treatment based on the patient’s genetic composition and a good understanding of the action mechanism of agonist, antagonist, partial agonist, and inverse agonist of psychopharmacologic agents. An example is the prescription of a benzodiazepine such as Ativan, used to treat anxiety disorder, insomnia, panic disorder, and alcohol withdrawal psychosis. Prescribers must start at the lowest dose for a short duration, secondary to the risk of dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal (Casari et al., 2022). Ativan binds to the benzodiazepine receptors at GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) ligand chloride channel complex and enhances the inhibitory effect of GABA. It is crucial to understand the role of the antagonist flumazenil, which prevents the activity of the agonist during overdose incidence. Flumazenil may cause seizures and thus should not be used in patients with seizure disorders (Camprodon & Roffman, 2016).

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the human central nervous system to understand the brain’s dysfunction that can lead to disease, mental disorders, and physical impairment (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019). The complex design of a neuron is the basic understanding of communication by sending impulses to other body organs. The brain controls human behavior and the functions of body organs. The anatomy and physiology of the brain help understand the part of the brain affected by mental illness. For example, poor concentration and cognitive skills dysfunction is the forebrain pathology. Additionally, one can understand the mode of action of psychopharmacology. For example, antidepressants may function by inhibiting the serotonin or epinephrine receptors.

An Agonist-To-Antagonist Spectrum of Action and How Partial and Inverse Agonists Influence Psychopharmacologic

An antagonist binds at the receptors by blocking any event of an agonist, hence, blocking the biological response. For example, naloxone is a competitive opioid antagonist and has no effects with opioid co-administration (Gicquelais, et al, 2019). An agonist binds to a receptor causing activation of the receptor, hence, the biological response. A partial agonist activates the receptors partially with lesser effect on the brain. For example, buprenorphine is a partial agonist, and therefore, an antagonist may block its opioid function without activating its receptors. An inverse receptor binds with constitutively active receptors and inhibits receptor activity by exerting opposite pharmacological effects that suppress spontaneous receptor signaling.

Comparison between Actions of G Couple Proteins and Ion Gated Channels

G coupled proteins GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that convert extracellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, olfaction, and taste signals. The GPCRs work by binding to the hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors to initiate a cellular response. The three types of G-couple receptors are alpha, beta, and gamma, in which the ligands bind and activate (Yudin & Rohacs 2019). Ion gated channels are integral membrane proteins of excitable cells that allow a flux of ions to pass only under defined circumstances. These channels are voltage-gated sodium channel neurons and ligand-dated acetylcholine receptors of the cholinergic synapses. The ion gated channel pull and bonds to the agonist changing the protein while g coupled proteins are used by the cells to convert intracellular signals into responses.

The Role of Epigenetics In the Pharmacologic Action

Epigenetics regulate gene activity by switching off the gene activity or activating the gene activity. Epigenetics plays a role in the phenotypic activity of the cell in diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Epigenetics modify gene expressions after drug administration to counteract the disease states in humans. Epigenetics proves its effectiveness in treating psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders to its ability to modify gene expressions.

The Significance of the Information to Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner

A psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner should have basic knowledge of the concepts of foundational neuroscience. Understanding the function of agonists, inverse and partial agonists, and antagonists prevent co-administration of drugs that agonize and antagonize the same receptors. For example, in treating a patient with a depressive mood disorder, prescribing antipsychotics such as fluphenazine worsens the depressive mood because it antagonizes the dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors depressing the release of the hypothalamic hormone.

References

Gicquelais, R. E., Bohnert, A. S., Thomas, L., & Foxman, B. (2020). Opioid agonist and antagonist use and the gut microbiota: associations among people in addiction treatment. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76570-9

Karmarkar, U. R., & Plassmann, H. (2019). Consumer neuroscience: Past, present, and future. Organizational Research Methods, 22(1), 174-195.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094428117730598

Yudin, Y., & Rohacs, T. (2019). The G‐protein‐biased agents PZM21 and TRV130 are partial agonists of μ‐opioid receptor‐mediated signalling to ion channels. British journal of pharmacology, 176(17), 3110-3125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.14702

Sample Answer 2 for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

Neuroscience and Prescription

Agonists and antagonists are critical players in pharmacology and, generally, in the human body. Agonist binds to a receptor, thus altering its state and producing an appropriate response (Patinote et al.,2020). They are considered the prime movers responsible for creating a specific movement. On the other hand, the antagonists are ligands that prevent the agonist from binding to a receptor, preventing its effects (Patinote et al.,2020). They do not by themselves contain pharmacological actions that are mediated by the receptors. Generally, this means that the agonists and antagonists act in different directions, whereby the agonists introduce an action while the antagonist opposes it. The agonist works with the muscles while the antagonists work against them. Furthermore, the agonist alters the functionality of the activities of the receptors, while the antagonists do not alter the activities of the receptors despite their binding to the receptor.

Moreover, the partial agonists cannot produce the maximal response of the tissue can regardless of whether they have the same number of receptors as full agonists. Therefore, a certain level of binding is where the partial agonist can bind the receptors without consequently producing additional effects (Patinote et al.,2020). Nevertheless, doing so may hinder the activities of other agonists, thus being seen as antagonists. Therefore, this mixture of actions is referred to as a partial agonist. Moreover, an inverse agonist binds to a receptor and produces a response different from that of the corresponding agonist (Patinote et al.,2020). When the agonist increases the activity mediated by a receptor, the inverse agonist decreases it.

The actions of G couple proteins and the ion-gated channels share similarities and differences. They are both considered transmembrane us proteins with ligand binding sites and have an effect on the cytoplasmic (Hu et al.,2021). In addition, they both, to some extent, react to the ligand, where they change their shape. The differences are that the G Protein receptors have a single polypeptide tied over the membrane. On the other hand, the ion channel has pores open and close when ligand binding occurs. Another difference is that the G protein-coupled receptors often interact highly with various proteins for an intracellular response (Hu et al.,2021). On the other hand, ion channels help regulate the flow of irons.

The role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action in various ways. The epigenetic regulation of the gene of activities of the gene is critical in the maintenance of normal phenotypic cell activities (Topper et al.,2020). It is also essential in developing diseases such as Alzheimer’s and cancer.

The information gained has helped me gain valuable insights and significantly impacted how one may prescribe medication to their patients. Understanding the epigenetics affected by human diseases helps define pharmacology that may be used to control the mechanism (Topper et al.,2020). As a result, it may help one make the right judgments regarding decisions related to the mediation of patients with mental health issues. The information gained helps link neurobiology to the diagnosis of mental health to help identify the effective medication to assist in the treatment of the disease. For example, using the information on neuroscience, a professional psychiatrist can relate and make an informed diagnosis, thus prescribing the best mediation based on informed judgments.

References

Hu, Y., Chen, M., Wang, M., & Li, X. (2021). Flow-mediated vasodilation through mechanosensitive G protein-coupled receptors in endothelial cells. Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2020.12.010Links to an external site.

Patinote, C., Karroum, N. B., Moarbess, G., Cirnat, N., Kassab, I., Bonnet, P. A., & Deleuze-Masquéfa, C. (2020). Agonist and antagonist ligands of toll-like receptors 7 and 8: Ingenious tools for therapeutic purposes. European journal of medicinal chemistry, 193, 112238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112238Links to an external site.

Topper, M. J., Vaz, M., Marrone, K. A., Brahmer, J. R., & Baylin, S. B. (2020). The emerging role of epigenetic therapeutics in immuno-oncology. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, 17(2), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-019-0266-5

As a psychiatric nurse practitioner, it is essential for you to have a strong background in foundational neuroscience. In order to diagnose and treat patients, you must not only understand the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders but also how medications for these disorders impact the central nervous system. These concepts of foundational neuroscience can be challenging to understand. Therefore, this Discussion is designed to encourage you to think through these concepts, develop a rationale for your thinking, and deepen your understanding by interacting with your colleagues.

Photo Credit: Getty Images/Cultura RF
For this Discussion, review the Learning Resources and reflect on the concepts of foundational neuroscience as they might apply to your role as the psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner in prescribing medications for patients.

By Day 3 of Week 2

Post a response to each of the following:
1. Explain the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents, including how partial and inverse agonist functionality may impact the efficacy of psychopharmacologic treatments.
2. Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels.
3. Explain how the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action.
4. Explain how this information may impact the way you prescribe medications to patients. Include a specific example of a situation or case with a patient in which the psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner must be aware of the medication’s action.
Read a selection of your colleagues’ responses.

By Day 6 of Week 2

Respond to at least two of your colleagues on two different days in one of the following ways:
• If your colleagues’ posts influenced your understanding of these concepts, be sure to share how and why. Include additional insights you gained.
• If you think your colleagues might have misunderstood these concepts, offer your alternative perspective and be sure to provide an explanation for them. Include resources to support your perspective.
Note: For this Discussion, you are required to complete your initial post before you will be able to view and respond to your colleagues’ postings. Begin by clicking on the “Post to Discussion Question” link and then select “Create Thread” to complete your initial post. Remember, once you click on Submit, you cannot delete or edit your own posts, and you cannot post anonymously. Please check your post carefully before clicking on Submit!
Submission and Grading Information

NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience DiscussionGrading Criteria

To access your rubric:
Week 2 Discussion Rubric

Post by Day 3 of Week 2 and Respond by Day 6 of Week 2

To Participate in this Discussion:
Week 2 Discussion

________________________________________
What’s Coming Up in Week 3?

Photo Credit: [BrianAJackson]/[iStock / Getty Images Plus]/Getty Images
Next week, you will explore medication adherence and strategies to help overcome non-adherence to pharmacotherapeutics. You will also complete a Quiz that addresses the content covered throughout this module.
Next Week

To go to the next week:
Week 3

Week 2: Neurotransmitters and Receptor Theory

Receptors and neurotransmitters are like a lock-and-key system. Just as it takes the right key to open a specific lock, it takes the right neurotransmitter to bind to a specific receptor. Not surprisingly, as it concerns psychopharmacology, the pharmacotherapeutics that are prescribed must trigger the release of certain neurotransmitters that bind to the correct receptors in order to elicit a favorable response for the patient. The mechanism of this binding and the response that follows reflects receptor theory and lies at the foundation of pharmacology.
This week, you will continue your examination of neuroanatomy and neuroscience as you engage with you colleagues in a Discussion. You will also explore the potential impacts of foundational neuroscience on the prescription of pharmacotherapeutics.

Also Read:

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Learning Objectives

Students will:

• Analyze the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents
• Compare the actions of g couple proteins to ion gated channels
• Analyze the role of epigenetics in pharmacologic action
• Analyze the impact of foundational neuroscience on the prescription of medications
________________________________________

Learning Resources

Required Readings (click to expand/reduce)

Camprodon, J. A., & Roffman, J. L. (2016). Psychiatric neuroscience: Incorporating pathophysiology into clinical case formulation. In T. A. Stern, M. Favo, T. E. Wilens, & J. F. Rosenbaum. (Eds.), Massachusetts General Hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics (pp. 1–19). Elsevier.

Required Media (click to expand/reduce)

The University of British Columbia. (n. d.). Neuroanatomy videos. http://neuroanatomy.ca/videos.html
Note: Please review all of the media under the neuroanatomy series.

Optional Resources (click to expand/reduce)

Pathopharmacology: Disorders of the Nervous System: Exploring the Human Brain
Dr. Norbert Myslinski reviews the structure and function of the human brain. Using human brains, he examines and illustrates the development of the brain and areas impacted by disorders associated with the brain. (15m)
Introduction to Advanced Pharmacology
In this media presentation, Dr. Terry Buttaro, associate professor of practice at Simmons School of Nursing and Health Sciences, discusses the importance of pharmacology for the advanced practice nurse. (6m)

Rubric Detail

Select Grid View or List View to change the rubric’s layout.
Content
Name: NURS_6630_Week2_Discussion_Rubric
• Grid View
• List View
Excellent

Point range: 90–100 Good

Point range: 80–89 Fair

Point range: 70–79 Poor

Point range: 0–69
Main Posting:

Response to the Discussion question is reflective with critical analysis and synthesis representative of knowledge gained from the course readings for the module and current credible sources. Points Range: 40 (40%) – 44 (44%)
Thoroughly responds to the Discussion question(s).

Is reflective with critical analysis and synthesis representative of knowledge gained from the course readings for the module and current credible sources.

No less than 75% of post has exceptional depth and breadth.

Supported by at least three current credible sources. Points Range: 35 (35%) – 39 (39%)
Responds to most of the Discussion question(s).

Is somewhat reflective with critical analysis and synthesis representative of knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.

50% of the post has exceptional depth and breadth.

Supported by at least three credible references. Points Range: 31 (31%) – 34 (34%)
Responds to some of the Discussion question(s).

One to two criteria are not addressed or are superficially addressed.

Is somewhat lacking reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.

Somewhat represents knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.

Post is cited with fewer than two credible references. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 30 (30%)
Does not respond to the Discussion question(s).

Lacks depth or superficially addresses criteria.

Lacks reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.

Does not represent knowledge gained from the course readings for the module.

Contains only one or no credible references.
Main Posting:

Writing Points Range: 6 (6%) – 6 (6%)
Written clearly and concisely.

Contains no grammatical or spelling errors.

Adheres to current APA manual writing rules and style. Points Range: 5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Written concisely.

May contain one to two grammatical or spelling errors.

Adheres to current APA manual writing rules and style. Points Range: 4 (4%) – 4 (4%)
Written somewhat concisely.

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May contain more than two spelling or grammatical errors.

Contains some APA formatting errors. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 3 (3%)
Not written clearly or concisely.

Contains more than two spelling or grammatical errors.

Does not adhere to current APA manual writing rules and style.
Main Posting:

Timely and full participation Points Range: 9 (9%) – 10 (10%)
Meets requirements for timely, full, and active participation.

Posts main Discussion by due date. Points Range: 8 (8%) – 8 (8%)
Posts main Discussion by due date.

Meets requirements for full participation. Points Range: 7 (7%) – 7 (7%)
Posts main Discussion by due date. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 6 (6%)
Does not meet requirements for full participation.

Does not post main Discussion by due date.
First Response:

Post to colleague’s main post that is reflective and justified with credible sources. Points Range: 9 (9%) – 9 (9%)
Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice settings.

Responds to questions posed by faculty.

The use of scholarly sources to support ideas demonstrates synthesis and understanding of learning objectives. Points Range: 8 (8%) – 8 (8%)
Response has some depth and may exhibit critical thinking or application to practice setting. Points Range: 7 (7%) – 7 (7%)
Response is on topic, may have some depth. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 6 (6%)
Response may not be on topic, lacks depth.
First Response:
Writing Points Range: 6 (6%) – 6 (6%)
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.

Response to faculty questions are fully answered, if posed.

Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by two or more credible sources.

Response is effectively written in Standard, Edited English. Points Range: 5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Communication is mostly professional and respectful to colleagues.

Response to faculty questions are mostly answered, if posed.

Provides opinions and ideas that are supported by few credible sources.

Response is written in Standard, Edited English. Points Range: 4 (4%) – 4 (4%)
Response posed in the Discussion may lack effective professional communication.

Response to faculty questions are somewhat answered, if posed.

Few or no credible sources are cited. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 3 (3%)
Responses posted in the Discussion lack effective communication.

Response to faculty questions are missing.

No credible sources are cited.
First Response:
Timely and full participation Points Range: 5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Meets requirements for timely, full, and active participation.

Posts by due date. Points Range: 4 (4%) – 4 (4%)
Meets requirements for full participation.

Posts by due date. Points Range: 3 (3%) – 3 (3%)
Posts by due date. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 2 (2%)
Does not meet requirements for full participation.

Does not post by due date.
Second Response:
Post to colleague’s main post that is reflective and justified with credible sources. Points Range: 9 (9%) – 9 (9%)
Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice settings.

Responds to questions posed by faculty.

The use of scholarly sources to support ideas demonstrates synthesis and understanding of learning objectives. Points Range: 8 (8%) – 8 (8%)
Response has some depth and may exhibit critical thinking or application to practice setting. Points Range: 7 (7%) – 7 (7%)
Response is on topic, may have some depth. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 6 (6%)
Response may not be on topic, lacks depth.
Second Response:
Writing Points Range: 6 (6%) – 6 (6%)
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.

Response to faculty questions are fully answered, if posed.

Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by two or more credible sources.

Response is effectively written in Standard, Edited English. Points Range: 5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Communication is mostly professional and respectful to colleagues.

Response to faculty questions are mostly answered, if posed.

Provides opinions and ideas that are supported by few credible sources.

Response is written in Standard, Edited English. Points Range: 4 (4%) – 4 (4%)
Response posed in the Discussion may lack effective professional communication.

Response to faculty questions are somewhat answered, if posed.

Few or no credible sources are cited. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 3 (3%)
Responses posted in the Discussion lack effective communication.

Response to faculty questions are missing.

No credible sources are cited.
Second Response:
Timely and full participation Points Range: 5 (5%) – 5 (5%)
Meets requirements for timely, full, and active participation.

Posts by due date. Points Range: 4 (4%) – 4 (4%)
Meets requirements for full participation.

Posts by due date. Points Range: 3 (3%) – 3 (3%)
Posts by due date. Points Range: 0 (0%) – 2 (2%)
Does not meet requirements for full participation.

Sample Answer 2 for  NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience Discussion

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the human central nervous system to understand the brain’s dysfunction that can lead to disease, mental disorders, and physical impairment (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019). The complex design of a neuron is the basic understanding of communication by sending impulses to other body organs. The brain controls human behavior and the functions of body organs. The anatomy and physiology of the brain help understand the part of the brain affected by mental illness. For example, poor concentration and cognitive skills dysfunction is the forebrain pathology. Additionally, one can understand the mode of action of psychopharmacology. For example, antidepressants may function by inhibiting the serotonin or epinephrine receptors.

An Agonist-To-Antagonist Spectrum of Action and How Partial and Inverse Agonists Influence Psychopharmacologic

An antagonist binds at the receptors by blocking any event of an agonist, hence, blocking the biological response. For example, naloxone is a competitive opioid antagonist and has no effects with opioid co-administration (Gicquelais, et al, 2019). An agonist binds to a receptor causing activation of the receptor, hence, the biological response. A partial agonist activates the receptors partially with lesser effect on the brain. For example, buprenorphine is a partial agonist, and therefore, an antagonist may block its opioid function without activating its receptors. An inverse receptor binds with constitutively active receptors and inhibits receptor activity by exerting opposite pharmacological effects that suppress spontaneous receptor signaling.

Comparison between Actions of G Couple Proteins and Ion Gated Channels

G coupled proteins GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that convert extracellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, olfaction, and taste signals. The GPCRs work by binding to the hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors to initiate a cellular response. The three types of G-couple receptors are alpha, beta, and gamma, in which the ligands bind and activate (Yudin & Rohacs 2019). Ion gated channels are integral membrane proteins of excitable cells that allow a flux of ions to pass only under defined circumstances. These channels are voltage-gated sodium channel neurons and ligand-dated acetylcholine receptors of the cholinergic synapses. The ion gated channel pull and bonds to the agonist changing the protein while g coupled proteins are used by the cells to convert intracellular signals into responses.

The Role of Epigenetics In the Pharmacologic Action

Epigenetics regulate gene activity by switching off the gene activity or activating the gene activity. Epigenetics plays a role in the phenotypic activity of the cell in diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Epigenetics modify gene expressions after drug administration to counteract the disease states in humans. Epigenetics proves its effectiveness in treating psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders to its ability to modify gene expressions.

The Significance of the Information to Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner

A psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner should have basic knowledge of the concepts of foundational neuroscience. Understanding the function of agonists, inverse and partial agonists, and antagonists prevent co-administration of drugs that agonize and antagonize the same receptors. For example, in treating a patient with a depressive mood disorder, prescribing antipsychotics such as fluphenazine worsens the depressive mood because it antagonizes the dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors depressing the release of the hypothalamic hormone.

 References

Gicquelais, R. E., Bohnert, A. S., Thomas, L., & Foxman, B. (2020). Opioid agonist and antagonist use and the gut microbiota: associations among people in addiction treatment. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76570-9

Karmarkar, U. R., & Plassmann, H. (2019). Consumer neuroscience: Past, present, and future. Organizational Research Methods, 22(1), 174-195.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094428117730598

Yudin, Y., & Rohacs, T. (2019). The G‐protein‐biased agents PZM21 and TRV130 are partial agonists of μ‐opioid receptor‐mediated signalling to ion channels. British journal of pharmacology, 176(17), 3110-3125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.14702

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Total Points: 100
Name: NURS_6630_Week2_Discussion_Rubric